Making Business Graduates Work-Ready by Cultivating Their Durable Skills

2.1 Framing the employer lens

Human Capital Theory (HCT) frames education and development as strategic investments that generate returns at the individual, organisational, and societal levels [18]. Since its foundational articulation by [19], the scope of HCT has undergone significant evolution, extending beyond its initial emphasis on education and skill acquisition to encompass broader dimensions, including health and well-being [20, 21]. This theoretical expansion reflects a growing recognition that human capital development extends beyond technical competencies, encompassing a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that contribute to workforce productivity and economic sustainability.

From the perspective of education and workforce development, the term ‘development’ is often favoured over ‘training’, as the latter denotes a narrower, task-specific approach. In contrast, development encompasses a more expansive and continuous process of skill enhancement and knowledge acquisition in durable skills [22]. In juxtaposition to HCT, the societal approach to skill development considers two primary domains: the education system and the role of organisations. These interconnected elements collectively influence the supply of graduates and shape their professional growth, ensuring their long-term adaptability within an evolving employment landscape. The challenges facing the domain constituents are outlined in the Korn Ferry’s report.

Global consulting firm Korn Ferry predicts that by 2030, there will be an international human capital (talent) shortage of 85 million people due to a lack of sufficiently skilled individuals to fill jobs [16]. Most employers rely on traditional skill proxies, such as degrees and job history, and place less emphasis on skill assessments [14]. A similar theme emerges in the World Economic Forum (WEF) report “Putting Skills First” [6], which highlights that 58% of workers believe their skills are unclear from their qualifications or job history, and 46% believe that employers focus too much on their job history and too little on their abilities.

In the United Kingdom (UK) context, graduates across many labour market sectors often face a mismatch between the academic skills they possess and those required by employers; a similar situation is presented in the Future Jobs Report (2023) [23, 24]. The situation is one of confusion; on the one hand, employers require a steady supply of work-ready graduates, and higher education institutions (HEIS) need to educate and develop them. The urgent need to consider human capital at different levels emerged in 2015, with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) recognising the importance of starting early in schools. The need to develop durable skills, as well as the need to create human capital at both individual and global levels, given that these are the future graduates and employees that employers will require [25].

The Business Council of Australia [26] explored what is meant by the term being work-ready; the findings suggest that employers are looking for potential employees to have more than formal qualifications. For example, formal qualifications or degrees may apply to some job functions; in others, the focus is more on skills and experience [26]. In other words, it is a shift from “We need people who can fill these jobs” to “We need people who have these skills” [27]. A survey of employers and workplace professionals revealed that the top five skills lacking at the entry-level were: critical thinking and problem-solving; positive work ethic; initiative and self-direction; time, task, and resource management; and speaking and listening [28]. Inconsistencies in the literature suggest that not all stakeholders agree on the essential skills that graduates must have [6, 14, 15, 23, 24]. Other contributors promote various skills that encompass a range of durable skills listed in the literature, including communication skills, teamwork and collaboration, problem-solving and critical thinking, organisational and planning skills, work ethic, initiative, and independence [4, 29].

Durable skills are “the cognitive and non-cognitive skills necessary to engage with, interact with, and adapt to any work environment” [30]. The data revealed that 44% of HR professionals would hire an applicant with strong, durable skills over an applicant with superior hard or technical skills; however, the report is sparse in detail on what sectors of the labour market this refers to [31]. In discussing the three dimensions of employability theory: [25, 32] career identity, personal adaptability and social and human capital, within these dimensions, the cultivation of durable skills occurs by promoting personal constructs that contribute to being work-ready. Deconstructing work readiness reveals that it occurs at two levels: at the macro level, considering the economic contribution that graduates, with their human capital they can bring to society and the workplace [33]. At the micro level, teaching and learning involve activities that develop knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours, as well as the application of HCT in education [34].

The macro level is defined as the extent to which graduates possess attributes that prepare them for success in the working world; this suggests that a solid foundation is required to build upon [35]. However, a two-year lag of substandard performance can occur before graduates become proficient [36]. This position is juxtaposed with the first stage of rites of passage; it is in the first stage that graduates emerge from the comfort of university life and its support, crossing a threshold [37]. Interpreting the earlier works of [34], there is an expectation that HEIs are ‘blamed’ for not producing work-ready graduates with the necessary skills crossing the threshold into employment [38, 39].

2.2 Framing the higher education institution (HEI) lens

Higher Education has experienced rapid change and, recently, uncertainty, driven mainly through neoliberalism on issues ranging from funding to students’ expectations and employers suggesting HEIs need to do more to prepare graduates for the world of work. Across the world, many students pay for their education, often incurring significant debt. They behave like consumers by viewing their education as a commodity rather than an investment [40]. The rise of the Precariat draws our gaze to the fact that graduates are not guaranteed employment at a level they expected, due to the economic crisis in which graduates leaving HE are experiencing, resulting in graduates being employed in non-graduate jobs [41, 42].

Research undertaken by the Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development (CIPD) [43] posits that over-qualification has become a reality. Yet, employers bemoan a lack of talent, which is congruent with [31’s] appraisal of the labour market across many countries. HEIs are part of the graduate supply chain, meeting the demands of the government, businesses, and industries, and employability is high on the strategic agenda in the UK and many other countries [44, 45]. Many HEIS incorporate aspects of Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) options, both outside formal learning, as a valuable opportunity for graduates to experience field trips to organisations, business fairs, and volunteering in the local community, among other activities. Within this curriculum, students can assume consultancy roles with employers, applying the knowledge and skills they have learned during formal learning [46].

In Australia, a discrepancy exists between employer expectations and the work readiness of graduates [11]. Their research highlighted that some employers engage with HEIs to develop graduate skills; however, the patchwork lacks an evaluation process within the pedagogical structure [47]. There is less focus on philosophical and higher-order thinking skills. University teaching and learning should be regularly reviewed and revised, as necessary, to develop transferable skills [48, 49, 50]. Business schools need to adopt design thinking to address the deficits in business school education [51], as this approach can support business graduates in making informed decisions in complex situations where clear facts are scarce. Simulated case studies can effectively facilitate this process [52] if they are well designed and the process of engagement via the learning pathway has been carefully considered.

2.3 Framing cultivating durable skills through game-based learning (GBL) using immersive case studies

If we ask most educators whether their institutions teach these skills, the answer will almost be a resounding “yes”. Yet, if you ask them to point out where in their curricula they teach these skills, few will be able to do so [53]. The learning space can be a ‘muddled space’ and is defined as “where the symbolic interaction can be positive and negative” [18].

Teaching and learning shape professional preparation at the micro level. Pedagogy aims to develop durable skills through a variety of instructional approaches. To achieve this, educators must apply situated learning [34, 54], ensuring business students gain transferable skills that enhance work readiness and support workforce development at the macro level [55, 56, 57].

This muddled space [18] enables self-determination theory to foster durable skills, with GBL driving motivation, autonomy, competence, and connectedness [58], all of which are essential to GBL [59]. Gamification is increasingly relevant to immersive learning, where games provide authentic contexts [60] and create the impression of full participation in a realistic experience [61]. The literature debates distinctions between games, simulations, and case studies [62], which encourage persistence in goal-oriented tasks, supported by high motivation through self-determination theory [63, 64, 65].

Integrating these aspects of the continuum allows the simulated case study to adapt fluidly to reality. In design stages, we apply four critical thinking approaches—general, infusion, immersion, and mixed [66]—while incorporating motivational drivers [58]. These frameworks shape materials and activities that build confidence in data analysis, problem-solving, and practical solution development [67]. Our case study pedagogy integrates infusion and immersion to develop durable skills. Infusion involves systematically identifying data and instructional materials, incorporating key information and Excel datasets to support skill cultivation—the “how” phase of our design process. In immersion, with clear objectives, we design activities that challenge students, foster reflection, and enhance skill development.

A simulated case study in business can highlight management as a complex, context-dependent practice beyond general principles or theories [68]. This contrasts with [51], which emphasises synthesising business disciplines with real-world challenges. The best approach is immersing students in realistic simulations to develop durable skills [69, 70]. Clearly defining the skills and knowledge to be created, gained, and applied is crucial [71]. Exposure to real-world complexity enhances problem-solving and decision-making abilities [72]. At the heart of effective business education lies the need to synthesise knowledge of the functional business disciplines with the day-to-day challenges faced in practice.

Effective case study design hinges on pitching it at the right level. A basic framework categorises cases as introductory, intermediate, or advanced but lacks difficulty differentiation, limiting analysis [73]. The case difficulty cube offers three dimensions—analytical, conceptual, and presentation, each with three difficulty levels, allowing tailored case study design for undergraduate, postgraduate, and executive education [52]. This approach helps tutors align skill development with learning objectives. Applying self-determination theory, overly challenging tasks increase cognitive load, disrupt flow, and diminish students’ confidence. Another key factor is whether the case study is delivered digitally, non-digitally, or as a hybrid format [62]. For Masters students, all dimensions were set at level 3 to maximise durable skill development (see Appendix B).

The simulated case study served two key purposes: assessing learning outcomes and fostering durable skill development. Instead of prescribing specific skills, it encouraged students to engage in reflective practice, identifying and articulating competencies gained throughout the process. This learner-centred approach enabled organic skill recognition through direct engagement with the case study.

The case study, based on a fictional organisation, was awarded first prize in 2024 at the University Forum for Human Resource Development (UFHRD) annual competition for its contribution to Learning and Education Resource Development [74]. The organisation is presented as a ‘dark side’ case study. A dark side case study is described as:

The module teaching team devised a transformative assessment strategy with three key tasks. First, students analysed diverse organisational data, Excel spreadsheets, management meeting minutes, and policy documents, over a week to simulate workplace data retrieval. Their output was an audit report, structured within a predefined template for systematic needs analysis. Based on these findings, Task Two required students to propose solutions for a substantial gap identified, detailing cost, timeline, and required resources. Finally, Task Three involved critical reflection on their learning and the transferable, durable skills developed.

2.4 Summary

There is a persistent misalignment between the practices in higher education institutions (HEIs) regarding the development and preparation of graduates and the evolving needs of employers. Divergent definitions and perspectives from various countries highlight a fragmented understanding of employer skills requirements, juxtaposed with the competencies of graduates entering the workforce through HEIs’ graduate pipelines. Engagement with simulated case studies provides students with a dynamic learning environment, wherein scenarios are subject to recalibration in response to fluctuations in market conditions or changed at any time due to regulatory changes at levels one and two [76]. However, all the evidence from the literature suggests that case studies are a valuable tool for developing durable skills. A salient theme emerging from the review underscores the nuanced and ongoing negotiation between institutional curricular frameworks and employer competency benchmarks.

3.1 Research approach

We adopted a realist position for this study, the rationale for which was that our research approach and data collection method would provide us with authentic information from students [87]. Our research approach juxtaposed with the assessment strategy of the module that both cohorts of students undertook. Based on these reflective accounts, we sought to investigate whether the durable skills, as perceived by employers as lacking, had been developed. One research question framed the study:

The target audience consisted of two cohorts of students pursuing a one-year Masters Degree in Human Resource Management (MSc HRM); we collected data over two years, from 2023 to 2025. The student population of both cohorts came from various countries, including India, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Thailand, Poland, China and the United Kingdom. Due to the small number of students in both cohorts, we approached the whole student population. The students in both cohorts had varying levels of employment experience; however, the majority had never held positions in human resource management or human resource development. The age profile ranged from the early 20s to the 40s.

A mapping exercise was conducted to integrate various skills into each day’s learning activities, as outlined in (Appendix A). Furthermore, we consulted with the professional standards of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) to identify the skills that students should develop to achieve professional accreditation. It’s essential to note that students who complete the Masters degree gain entry into the professional body, and membership grade levels are determined by the skills and experiences required for each level.

3.2 Capturing qualitative data

Qualitative data were captured as part of the module’s final summative assessment. Using a ‘tabula rasa’ or clean slate approach [88, 89, 90]. Students were encouraged to express their feelings openly, allowing them to be reflexive by being aware of their personal experiences and skill development throughout the module [91]. Some guidance was provided, focusing on skills development and what could be taken forward to enhance their employment prospects.

3.3 Ethical considerations

We were guided by the British Educational Research Association’s (BERA) ethical guidelines and procedures [92]. At the end of the module, both cohorts of students gave permission for their reflective accounts to be used in this study. All students were invited to participate and provided information on informed consent and their rights. It was emphasised that whether they participated in the research or not, it had no bearing on their final grade in the module or their overall degree classification. Due to the sensitivity of the information, all personal responses were anonymised [77]. This was achieved by assigning a number to the 2023–2024 cohort (e.g. student 1) and a letter to the 2024–2025 cohort (e.g. student A), which will be referenced when providing illustrative quotes. The external examiner approved and signed off on these tasks as part of the quality assurance process.

4.1 Student assessment performance

The simulated case study served as the primary assessment tool, combining two tasks and marks to yield an overall grade. Management uses this data to benchmark the module with other modules; a threshold of 70% of grades must be above 60%. This data suggests that the module achieved a 13% upward increase over the two years. However, there was a 15% drop in the number of students achieving the highest grade. No students failed the module in the latest results. While these figures are encouraging, we must delve beneath the numbers to understand how using the simulated case study facilitated the development of durable skills.

Furthermore, as described in the methodology section, elements of the (CIPD’s) professional standards are evidence-based outcomes that align with the definitions of durable skills [7]. The figures in Table 1 indicate that students are meeting the evidence requirements outlined in the standards. As part of the module’s assessment criteria, students were required to reflect on the skills they developed in a consultancy role using the simulated case organisation (Figure 1).

4.2 Unearthing nuggets of gold from the data

We read through each reflective report randomly to develop an overall familiarity with the data. We then re-read, extracting words or phrases and coding systematically, using coding cycles [96]. This process involved tagging relevant words or phrases linked to the research question [98]. Our first coding cycle generated a list of over 20 labels; some were mentioned only once or twice, while others emerged as common themes across both cohorts. Our second cycle of coding identified commonalities, and we subsequently reduced the number of labels to nine categories. Once commonality is identified, continue coding [98]; we then worked to identify and reduce the number of categories by converging categories under suitable themes. Based on our second-level cycle coding, we continued this process until we arrived at three capstone cluster labels: apprehension, fearlessness, and enabling. Our attention was focused on the skills explicitly mentioned in the reflective accounts and on utilising conventional content analysis.

4.3 Apprehension capstone

The first capstone, apprehension, was the experience of this teaching and learning approach that many students in both cohorts had never encountered. This approach made many apprehensive and uncomfortable, taking them outside their comfort zone. There is a close relationship between apprehension and durable skills, as uncertainty or fear can be a constraining factor limiting the development of skills, particularly if self-doubt, as seen in the illustrations below, impacts self-confidence:

Student A, talked about the task size: “When first opening the Excel document and seeing all the data, I was stunned and almost immediately lost hope in trying to make sense of the data.”

These two excerpts demonstrate that both students initially exhibited a deficiency in the requisite skills at the outset of the module. However, their apprehension functioned as a motivational stimulus, fostering skill acquisition and progressive development. Their capacity for resilience, an enduring competency recognised by employers [5], served as a driving force, enabling them to navigate challenges and ultimately achieve successful completion of all assigned tasks.

Analysis of the personal reflections revealed that students reported a lack of prior experience working with Excel data, which contributed to the presence of self-doubt, particularly their fear of working with Excel data. This phenomenon reflects a diminished sense of self-efficacy and, in this context, a cognitive apprehension toward data processing [101, 102]. In response to such uncertainty, students may adopt one of two distinct approaches: disengagement or perseverance through the learning process, thereby acquiring new competencies and refining their analytical skills by ongoing self-assessment [103, 104]. This observation suggests that the intrinsic cognitive load experienced by individuals was not uniform [105], as variations in their ability to engage with data, identify challenges, and formulate solutions influenced their overall learning trajectory. This exposure provided the opportunity to internalise the problems and identify ways to manage. However, it appeared that not only the data, but also the process, raised some concerns among students.

Student Q stated, “Initially, I felt overwhelmed by the scope of the project.”

Some students rose to the challenge, acknowledging and demonstrating strong self-efficacy and resilience by drawing on their own resources. For student 8, the initial magnitude of the task was accepted as a challenge and a learning opportunity; they stated:

Student 8’s account highlights the learning scope of how their frame of reference moved from being initially overwhelmed to “I can do this.” They demonstrated the durable skill of analytical thinking by breaking down the complex problem into manageable components; this strategy facilitated the moment beyond their initial fear by enabling them to make decisions based on their appraisal of the situation and self-assessment [104]. For Student 10, being exposed to the challenge of someone who had never studied Human Resource Management (HRM) before, took a similar approach:

These illustrative quotes suggest this was the first time many students had been exposed to a ‘dark side’ case study and the challenges they faced. However, many students also emerged with a common theme of seeing it as a learning opportunity, arising from a sense of fear, as they faced a challenge they had never experienced before and in such depth.

Student 53, took a different perspective:

When encountering this set of demanding tasks, some students experienced a phase of cognitive entropy, in which the influence of inhibitors (Figure 2) outweighed their capacity for self-assessment. Consequently, they encountered difficulties in evaluating both the challenges presented and the competencies they had previously developed throughout their learning trajectory, indicative of an absence of ‘Flow.’ In contrast, Student 53 demonstrated a consistent state of flow from the outset, recognising the presence of inhibitors yet strategically engaging with promoters. By adopting a growth mindset from the outset, they effectively navigated the challenges, resulting in a more adaptive and resilient learning experience. After the initial exposure and challenges were explained, students progressed to the next stage and began to tackle the assessment tasks.

4.4 Fearless capstone

Under the second capstone, fearlessness, students gained confidence as they progressed beyond apprehension. This process involved identifying tools and strategies to transition from hesitation to self-assurance, embracing the mindset of “I can do this.” By leveraging promoters, they developed essential skills, indicating that those who initially struggled had now achieved a state of flow by using the skill they were developing along their cognitive pathway (Figure 3).

Students adopted various coping strategies to manage anxiety, including seeking guidance from peers and tutors or utilising LinkedIn for learning. A structured approach to problem-solving, prioritising tasks, managing commitments, and breaking work into smaller, manageable segments proved to be a valuable, durable skill. Teamwork was particularly beneficial for students who found data analysis challenging, as it fostered collaboration and enhanced overall comprehension. Furthermore, the study highlighted its role in overcoming cultural barriers and promoting inclusivity within the learning environment.

As Student L indicated: “Working with peers from diverse backgrounds provided me with fresh perspectives on challenges and solutions.”

Teamwork also helped students gain more confidence. Several commented that they would usually sit around in groups and not contribute or get involved; however, with the assessment tasks being different, they could not afford to sit back. They needed to have a presence and contribute to discussions. Student 1 commented:

Student 1, was comfortable working in teams; however, Excel data appeared challenging. This encounter prompted many students to seek free introductory Excel courses in the library or online, in search of learning opportunities to overcome the barriers. This forced students to become self-directed learners, overcoming challenges through competency-based learning by focusing on skill acquisition and continuously self-assessing Student T, wrote:

Other students highlighted their drive and determination, which was sparked by the creative teaching approaches adopted by the teaching team. These approaches enabled them to view solutions to challenges from different perspectives, including Game-Based Learning (GBL), video inclusion, puzzles, quizzes, and industry speakers. The first assessment task was submitted in week four of the program. Marking was completed very quickly to build student confidence from their feedback before submitting their summative task two.

4.5 Enabling capstone

In the third capstone, enabling, students uncovered latent themes within the case study through meticulous exegesis, demonstrating durable skills, exemplified by critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Figure 4). Adaptive learning concepts were evident in the reflections, as each student approached the tasks and deployed or developed appropriate skills. We noticed different skills, behaviours and attributes from a myriad of different experiences.

Student 7, saw the tasks as very challenging with a lot of data, at the end of the module, this student now has a different perspective:

Another successful strategy identified was the differences between students interpreting operational and strategic challenges and arriving at workable solutions. This highlighted the flexibility of many students, who were open to new ideas and fresh perspectives. As the quote below succinctly illustrates, most students navigated through each stage of the process, encountering challenges, finding solutions, and acquiring valuable knowledge and skills that will take them toward their chosen career paths. Student 8 wrote:

After initial apprehension, students emerged more prepared to meet the challenges of employment, commenting that the experience was both transformative and transformational. They felt more confident working with different data types, considering problems from various angles, applying systems thinking, and producing funded solutions. A main takeaway for students was the application of theory informing practical solutions.

4.6 Sketching the triangulation of capstones: What picture emerged?

Our synthesis of the content themes under each capstone suggests that as students engage with the challenge and immerse themselves in the task, they navigate the learning process via one of two distinct routes (Figure 5) and add to their own skill set. The cognitive pathway they adopt was shaped by their current skill level, influencing how efficiently they process, refine and develop their skills. Cognitive pathways support the idea that durable skills develop through experience, with repeated engagement strengthening cognitive connections. It aligns with the argument that game-based learning (GBL) fosters problem-solving, critical thinking, and adaptability, making skills more automatic and transferable [106, 107]. For students following route two, we propose that their progression toward competency and confidence was slower, primarily influenced by the inhibitors outlined in (Figures 2, 3, and 4). Conversely, students who took route one demonstrated a higher initial skill level, enabling them to achieve flow and competence more rapidly. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that students exhibiting a growth mindset reached the enabling stage more quickly, allowing them to engage deeply with tasks earlier in the process and identify them as learning opportunities.

One important observation was the levels of explanation that students adopted in their reflective reports; many students employed a reductionist approach, drilling down into specific details by reflecting on events and actions. This cognitive narrowing appeared to help the students stay focused on the skill they needed to develop. In the reflective accounts, there was evidence that students adopted a holistic stance by focusing on the whole experience; this cognitive broadening facilitated the appraisal of multiple perspectives and produced diverse solutions that demonstrated several durable skills [100, 104]. Furthermore, our analysis identified crossover points between inhibitors and promoters, indicating that students become more engaged in their learning and experience increased confidence and skill level development. We noticed a shift in tone from uncertainty to confidence in the tasks, highlighting numerous positive takeaways regarding skill development. Many students reported that they had not previously experienced working on a single case study over an extended period or at this level of complexity and with different data types, indicating that this was a challenge at the level-three difficulty across all dimensions (Appendix B). It is suggested that participants in a case learning experience are always constrained by time to read, analyse and discuss the case [52].

For us, the level of commitment to the tasks was commendable among all students; their reflections indicate a learning journey that transformed them from feeling anxious, with a sense of ‘I cannot’, to one of ‘I can’, resulting in a significant learning experience. Student 19, delivers the final poignant message: