This study analyses sustainable strategies applicable to the disposal of solar panels and brings together recycling and reuse approaches. This study also identifies the technological and environmental challenges involved and evaluates public policies encouraging circular economy, to minimize environmental impacts and promote effective management of photovoltaic (PV) waste. The primary objective of this study is to determine effective and sustainable strategies based on the challenges and technological solutions available, as well as current policies. Such a holistic approach is crucial for formulating practical and innovative solutions, which not only extend the useful life of materials, but also contribute to a more circular production and consumption model with a lower impact on the environment. It is a fact that public measures in favor of sustainable development are gaining strength where the policies have been implemented, however, their success depends heavily on the public awareness and promoting environmental education. For this reason, it is evident that challenges still persist and deserve continued attention, so that more success stories resonate worldwide.
Keywords
environmental impacts
recycle
reuse
solar panels
sustainable disposal
Author information
Introduction
The growing adoption of photovoltaic (PV) solar panels as a renewable energy source represents a significant step forward towards a more sustainable future. However, the increasing installation of these systems present a new challenge: the disposal and reuse of solar panels at the end of their lifecycle. Energy efficiency and resource sustainability need to be accompanied by effective waste management strategies, especially in view of the environmental impacts that result from the inappropriate disposal of PV materials.
This study analyses the sustainable strategies for the disposal of solar panels, highlighting the alternatives for recycling and reusing components. The rapidly expanding PV industry is constrained by the development of technological solutions that allow the recovery of valuable materials and minimising negative impacts on the environment. Prado and Espinosa [1] posited that the recycling of PV panels and metal recovery contributed significantly to a circular economy and reduced the quantity of waste.
In this context, the assessment of public policies that promote circular practices is essential to ensure that the environmental benefits of solar energy are fully realised. Studies on glass recovery, as an alternative to the disposal of panels, show that the implementation of incentive policies are decisive in increasing the recycling rate and enabling sustainable waste management. Policies that encourage research and development, coupled with environmental education, are fundamental to the transition towards more sustainable waste management practices.
The main question of this study is: “What are the most effective and sustainable strategies for the disposal, recycling and reuse of PV solar panels at the end of their lifecycle, considering the technological and environmental challenges and current public policies?” Answering this question also includes identification of innovative solutions that ensure the reuse of materials and promote the development of efficient separation and processing technologies.
Thus, addressing the challenges associated with the end of lifecycle of solar panels is crucial to mitigate the negative impacts of their expansion as a clean energy source. This study discusses the technological, economic and political variables that influence the success of sustainable disposal strategies, contributing to the development of clear and practical guidelines for the management of PV waste. In addition, it seeks to encourage the incorporation of these practices into the agenda of industries and policy makers, targeting a sustainable future.
In short, strategies for sustainable disposal of solar panels must not only address the technological and environmental challenges, but also take advantage of policy and circular economy opportunities to foster sustainable practices. The combination of technological development, policy support and social awareness creates a resilient path to address the challenges of recycling and reusing solar panels.
Methodology
The methodology consisted of an in-depth review of scientific publications and public policies relevant to this study. Being a qualitative study, an extensive literature review was required to support the understanding of the state-of-the-art and current practices in the management of PV panel waste. The intention was to allow a comprehensive understanding of recycling and reuse processes, as well as policies that encourage the circular economy and reducing environmental impact.
Sampling was based on the selection of relevant publications including case studies available in literature and in publications from institutions engaged in waste management and environmental regulation. The sources were chosen based on the year of publication, very recent ones were sought to ensure that the information reflected current technological and political developments in the sector.
To corroborate the scientific nature of the study, a search for articles was carried out on the Web of Science Platform, selecting the past five years (2021 to 2025) whose title contained the expression “Photovoltaic Life Cycle” resulting in a list of 42 publications.
Literature review
Recycling and reusing photovoltaic components
Recycling solar panels presents considerable technical and economic challenges. PV modules, composed of complex materials such as silicon, aluminium and glass, require specialized processes for effective separation and recovery of components. These techniques are still in the development phase and are limited by cost and efficiency issues. In this scenario, encouraging technological research to improve recycling techniques is essential [2, 3].
One promising solution involves developing processes to recover valuable metals present in solar panels, such as silver and copper, making recycling economically viable. Studies indicate that these metals are essential for the functioning of PV panels and also have a lucrative secondary market, which can subsidise part of the recycling costs. Moreover, the recycling of non-metallic components, such as glass, is equally important and can be facilitated by mechanical separation processes [2–4].
Another crucial aspect concerns the standardisation and management policy of PV waste, requiring a clear regulatory framework that encourages shared responsibility between manufacturers, consumers and recyclers. Legislation can establish mandatory recycling targets and financial support for innovation in the sector, thus creating a closed and sustainable cycle for the use of materials [5].
Reuse is a complementary strategy that extends the life of solar panels by postponing the need for disposal. Although studies on the technical feasibility of reusing decommissioned panel components in new applications are still limited, there is significant potential in industrial sectors and sustainable architecture. These practices not only extend the lifecycle of materials, but also help to reduce the costs involved in producing new panels [6].
Furthermore, environmental education and awareness play a vital role in promoting sustainable practices. Implementing educational programs that highlight the benefits of recycling and the importance of proper disposal increases community participation in collection and recycling programs. Consumer participation is crucial to the success of these efforts, as an informed consumer is more likely to recycle and support policies that promote sustainability [6].
Therefore, addressing the challenges of sustainable disposal of solar panels is a complex task that requires collaboration from various sectors of society. Advanced recycling technology, comprehensive public policies and community involvement are key elements for the proper management of PV waste. Promoting research and development of new recycling and reuse technologies, while creating a supporting infrastructure through policies and education, will enhance efforts towards a circular economy in the PV sector [6].
Sustainable disposal of solar panels has become a growing concern due to the increasing use of PV technology for clean energy production. With the popularization of solar panels, many devices are likely to be discarded in the coming years, requiring effective and environmentally friendly strategies. This presents significant challenges for recycling and reuse, which are essential to sustain the circular economy concept and minimize environmental impact [3, 7].
Solar panel components, such as glass, silicon and heavy metals, can be recycled; however, the process is still incipient in many places and economically nonviable without clear public policies and financial incentives. Studies suggest that recycling PV panels is an advantageous alternative to traditional disposal, recovering valuable materials for reintroduction into the production chain [2].
In addition to economic issues, there are technical and scientific challenges in recycling. The complexity of efficiently dismantling and separating materials from solar panels still requires techniques that make the process more sustainable and economically feasible. Research indicates the need for more efficient separation and purification methods to recover elements such as silver and silicon, which are in high industrial demand [5, 6, 8].
The reuse of solar panels, although less explored, contributes significantly to waste reduction. Panels that are still functional or have minor defects can be reconditioned for use in less demanding contexts, such as rural areas or for low-power devices [9].
Education and awareness about the importance of proper management of PV panels are crucial. Initiatives to increase public understanding of environmental impacts and recommended disposal practices are essential to engage society [10].
Creating reverse logistics networks can align the interests of manufacturers, consumers and recyclers, facilitating the flow of materials back into the production process. This encourages sustainable practices and adds economic value to the lifecycle of the products [2, 7, 10].
Solar energy growth and environmental implications
The growth of solar energy production and use in recent years has been substantial, and has significant environmental implications due to the inadequate disposal of panels at the end of their useful life [11].
PV solar energy has emerged as one of the main sources of renewable energy, standing out for its ability to generate electricity in a clean and sustainable way. However, the accelerated growth of installed PV capacity brings considerable challenges related to the management of waste from solar panels at the end of their useful life [11, 12].
The global installed capacity of solar PV energy increased from 222 GW in 2015 to over 400 GW in 2017, with projections to reach 4500 GW by 2050, highlighting the urgent need to develop effective strategies for the management of this waste [12]. Solar panels contain heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, which can be released into the environment if not managed properly, potentially leading serious health problems and environmental pollution. Thus, recycling and proper management of this waste are essential to mitigate such risks [12].
The European Union (EU) has pioneered the implementation of regulatory guidelines for the recycling of solar panels, classifying them as electronic waste under the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Other countries are also developing specific systems for the management of this waste, but there is still much to be done [12].
Solar panel recycling is in development stage, with EU leading the way with strict regulatory guidelines. The recovery of valuable materials from these panels can reduce costs and minimize environmental impacts. The implementation of extended producer responsibility (EPR) programs also encourages manufacturers to incorporate environmental concerns into product design [12].
The global volume of solar panel waste is estimated to reach between 60 and 78 million tonnes by 2050. Solar panel waste management presents significant challenges, such as the need for adequate recycling infrastructure and the lack of uniform regulations at a global level. However, there are also opportunities for innovation and development of more efficient and sustainable recycling technologies [11, 12].
PV solar panel waste management is an emerging field that demands urgent attention. Implementing robust regulations, effective recycling practices, and EPR programs are essential to mitigate environmental risks and seize opportunities for recovering valuable materials. With the continued growth of solar energy, developing sustainable strategies for waste management is imperative to ensure a cleaner and safer future [9, 11, 12].
Solar panel recycling technologies
Solar panel recycling involves the recovery of materials such as silicon, silver, aluminium, and glass. Chen and Ogunseitan [13] discussed the limitations of current technologies, such as mechanical breakdown and component separation based on existing recycling methods and emerging new technologies.
The efficiency of PV panels decreases over time, increasing the need for replacement and the volume of waste [9, 12–14]. Currently, the main recycling technologies include:
Mechanical recycling
Mechanical recycling is a technique that involves shredding and physical separation of materials from solar panels. This process is effective for recovering glass and aluminium, but poses challenges in recovering silicon, which is more difficult to separate due to its intricate nature. Alternative methods, such as thermal and chemical processes are more efficient for recovering silicon [5, 6, 8].
The structure of solar panels, composed of layers of glass, plastic and metals, makes the separation of materials a complex process. Mechanical recycling methods are relatively expensive due to the need for specialized equipment and additional processes to separate the materials. Moreover, the process can generate additional waste that needs to be managed properly [15–17].
The development of new technologies and methods to improve the efficiency of mechanical recycling, especially in silicon recovery, presents an significant opportunity. Implementing policies and regulations that encourage recycling and reusing solar panel materials is crucial to reduce environmental impact. Efficient recycling contributes to the creation of a circular economy, where materials are continuously reused [18].
Thermal recycling
Thermal recycling is suitable for recovering silicon and precious metals, but faces significant cost and emissions challenges. Thermal recycling of PV panels is a vital process for the recovery of valuable materials, such as silicon and precious metals, from solar panels at the end of their useful life. This method uses high temperatures to separate and recover these materials and is efficient in isolating glass and metal, which make up the majority of solar panels [17].
The solar panels are collected and transported to a specialized recycling facility, where the panels are then exposed to high temperatures, allowing various components to be separated. Glass, which makes up nearly 80% of the panel, is melted to be separated. Valuable metals and other recyclable materials are then isolated and recovered. Silicon, which is essential for the manufacture of new solar panels, is also recovered and reused. This process not only minimises the environmental impact, but also creates new economic opportunities in the solar energy sector [16, 17, 19].
However, thermal recycling faces challenges such as high cost and emissions generated during the process. The use of high temperatures in recycling plants require specialised equipment leading to increased operational costs. Additionally, the process can generate emissions that need to be controlled to reduce environmental impact [5, 8, 19].
Chemical recycling
Chemical recycling is effective in recovering precious metals and silicon, but requires careful management of chemical waste [19]. Major challenges include the high cost of recycling, the complexity of solar panel materials, and the lack of adequate infrastructure [20–22].
Chemical recycling of solar panels is a vital process for recovering valuable materials, such as precious metals and silicon, from solar panels at the end of their useful life. This method involves the use of chemical reagents to dissolve and separate the different components of solar panels. Chemical recycling is efficient in separating materials such as glass, precious metals and silicon, which can be reused in the manufacture of new solar panels or in other industries [20, 23, 24].
However, one of the biggest challenges of chemical recycling is the careful management of chemical waste generated during the process. It is essential to ensure that this waste is treated safely to minimize environmental impacts. Moreover, the high cost involved and the complexity of the materials present in solar panels make chemical recycling a niche solution [25].
Chemical recycling also helps in reducing the amount of electronic waste and recovering valuable materials, contributing to sustainability and the circular economy[26]. As technology advances, the efficiency and economic viability of chemical recycling are expected to improve, facilitating large-scale implementation and promoting more sustainable practices in the solar energy sector [27–29].
Table 1 summarises the main methods, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each technique.
Technique
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mechanical recycling
Simplest and cheapest technique of the three methods.
It is not effective for more complex separation of silicon
Thermal recycling
Warming up allows for recovery that physical separation would not achieve.
The use of high temperatures can be expensive and require specialized equipment, increasing operational costs.
Chemical recycling
That best method to recover each of the panel materials.
The use of chemical products generates hazardous waste and requires specialized technical labour.
Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of the main recycling techniques.
How the world recycles
Germany is an example of successful recycling, with a rate exceeding 65%. This result was achieved thanks to a robust selective collection system and strict regulations, where each type of waste, such as paper, glass, plastic and metal, has its own collection container, facilitating separation and proper processing [25].
Environmental education played a crucial role in this success, with school programs and public campaigns raising awareness about the importance of recycling and sustainability. These initiatives helped to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills and promote a more sustainable circular economy [10, 11, 15, 19, 26].
In Japan, the government has implemented innovative policies for recycling solar panels due to the expected increase in the disposal of these materials, which have a useful life of approximately 20 to 30 years [30]. Among the technological innovations developed, the creation of a machine capable of recycling solar panels in approximately one minute stands out, which significantly increased the efficiency of the process [30].
In Brazil, one of the main challenges in recycling photovoltaic panels is the insufficient infrastructure for collecting and processing this waste. The lack of specialized facilities has made recycling processes more difficult, leading to improper disposal of many solar panels. Moreover, regulations on the disposal and recycling of these panels are limited, which make it difficult to implement efficient and uniform recycling practices [31].
Despite these challenges, promising initiatives are being developed. Several regions are implementing collection and recycling programs in partnership with private companies and non-governmental organizations. These public-private partnerships create a more robust infrastructure for PV waste management and encourage recycling [26, 29, 30].
For a sustainable future, it is necessary to invest in local technological advances that make the recycling process more efficient and economical. Effective public policies are also essential to promote recycling and ensure that waste is managed sustainably. Awareness programs play a crucial role by educating the population about the importance of recycling solar panels and encouraging community participation in these initiatives [26, 29, 30].
Circular economy and sustainability
The transition to a circular economy is considered an effective strategy to address the challenges of disposing solar panels [30]. Circular economy promotes the reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling, minimising waste and maximising the value of recovered materials. Additionally, this approach encourages innovation in product design, promoting the creation of more durable products that are easier to repair, recycle, or reuse [30].
According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) [32], circular economy can significantly reduce the environmental impact of solar panels throughout their entire lifecycle, from production to final disposal. Implementing public policies that encourage circular economy practices is also crucial to ensure long-term sustainability. IRENA highlights that the circular economy not only conserves natural resources, but also reduces the need for fresh raw materials, resulting in lower carbon emissions and lower production costs.
Educational programs and awareness campaigns can increase community participation in sustainable practices, such as solar panel recycling. Active consumer participation is essential for the success of these initiatives, as an informed consumer is more likely to recycle and support policies that promote sustainability [15, 17, 33].
Public policies and international regulation
The lack of a global standard is an impediment for consistent and effective recycling practices worldwide. However, few countries have adopted innovative policies to address this issue. For instance, the EU has implemented the WEEE Directive, which requires producers to be responsible for the proper disposal of solar panels and other electronic waste [34–36].
The EPR approach has served as a model for other regions, and countries such as the US and China are also developing their own regulations to manage the disposal of solar panels. However, the implementation of these policies varies significantly, and many countries still face challenges in creating adequate recycling infrastructures [37, 38].
IRENA and the International Energy Agency’s Photovoltaic Energy Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS) have been working together to provide guidance and recommendations on improving the end-of-life management of solar panels. They have highlighted the importance of public policies that encourage recycling and reuse of materials, as well as the need for investment in advanced recycling technologies [32].
Results
Using the results analysis tools available from Clarivate® [39], it is possible to quantitatively analyse the papers found (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Publications over the past 5 years. Source: Modified (re-drawn) from Clarivate® [39].
The year 2023 was the year with the highest number of publications, the year 2025 only shows one result, however the results refer to the month of March, when this research was carried out (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Publications according to countries. Source: Modified (re-drawn) from Clarivate® [39].
Republic of China holds the position for the highest number of publications, followed by Italy and Germany.
This study elucidated that while the use of solar energy is expanding due to its environmental benefits, the accumulation of waste resulting from the increase in obsolete panels represents a significant challenge that requires appropriate recycling and reuse strategies.
It can be inferred from the results that current methods for recycling and recovering materials from photovoltaic (PV) panels are still incipient, lack standardization and not cost- effectiveness. Furthermore, the recovery of valuable components, such as silicon, and metals used in the manufacture of panels have significant economic potential that is still unexplored. This study also emphasises the need for technological and regulatory development at national and international levels to effectively address these challenges and improve the economic viability of recycling operations.
The implications of the findings are not limited to the environmental scope, but also encompass economic and social aspects. Implementing effective methods can reduce dependence on the extraction of new materials, promote circular economy, and create new business and employment opportunities linked to PV waste management. Furthermore, sustainable strategies foster a cleaner and safer environment, preventing potential soil and water pollution caused by improper disposal of solar panels.
This study also highlights the importance of public policies and incentives that promote the research and development of recycling and reuse technologies, as well as the increase in partnerships between the public and private sectors. This includes promoting cleaner production from the design stage of the panels, thus facilitating the recycling process and extending the lifecycle of the materials used.
In summary, addressing the challenges related to the disposal of solar panels is vital to ensure the sustainable growth of PV energy. This study serves as a call to action for researchers, policy makers and industries to collaborate in the development of innovative and integrated solutions that enable a responsible and sustainable transition to renewable energy sources.
It is evident that public measures are in favor of sustainable development and have been gaining strength in regions where such policies have been implemented. However, their success relies heavily on public awareness, which is fostered through environmental education and a collective concern for the common good. However, it is evident that challenges still persist and require continuous attention to truly reach satisfactory levels of PV panel recycling worldwide—a sector that still finds itself in an incipient stage.
This research did not receive external funding from any agencies.
Ethical statement
Not applicable.
Data availability statement
Source data is not available for this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Written by
Maria Claudia Botan, Vinny Godoy, Antonio Botan, Flávio Cabrera, Guilherme Cardim, Renivaldo Santos
Article Type: Review Paper
•
Date of acceptance: April 2025
Date of publication: May 2025
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DOI: 10.5772/geet.20250021
Copyright: The Author(s), Licensee IntechOpen, License: CC BY 4.0
