This paper examines the significant contributions of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) to the field of radioactive waste management (RadWM). The integration of these advanced technologies enhances safety, efficiency, and accuracy across various processes, including waste characterization, storage, transportation, and disposal. This paper discusses the applications, benefits, challenges, and prospects of these technologies in the RadWM sector with specific applications to training and simulation, and public engagement and education. The enhanced training simulation in immersive training environments, safety drills, and augmented training aids is discussed with examples from the nuclear industry. Similarly, enhancement in public engagement and education is discussed through immersive experiences, explaining various RadWM processes, such as a facility’s design and management, safety features, and environmental impact.

The outcomes of this review paper have revealed that the integration of VR and AR technologies in RadWM has positive impacts on training and public engagement. For training and operations, the implementation of these technologies not only provides substantial benefits, including improved accuracy, enhanced safety, and greater efficiency, but also offers innovative ways to engage the public, enhance understanding, and foster transparency in complex and often sensitive areas like RadWM. As these technologies advance and more initiatives adopt VR and AR for training and educational purposes, further examples and case studies are expected to emerge, showcasing its effectiveness in simulating RadWM processes, communicating critical information, and promoting informed decision-making among diverse audiences.

Keywords

augmented and virtual reality
informed decision-making
public engagement and education
radioactive waste management
training and simulation

Author information

Introduction

Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are rapidly emerging technologies with significant potential in radioactive waste management (RadWM). The global AR market is projected to reach $71.2 billion (USD) by 2028 [1] while the VR market is expected to grow to $44.7 billion by the same year [2]. These technologies offer immersive and interactive environments that enhance training, improve safety, and optimize operational efficiency [3–12].

In the nuclear industry, VR has been applied across various operational and training scenarios. It has been used to facilitate communication between management and emergency response teams during crisis situations [13]. Additionally, it plays a critical role in training field operators, focusing on fault identification, incident and accident management, maintenance, radiation visualization, hazard detection, and physical safety [14–17]. Furthermore, immersive VR (IVR) platforms have been implemented to support nuclear accident emergency response training programs [18, 19].

In a study by Mohamed and Al Nahyan [19], the transformative role of AR and VR in RadWM, focusing on their applications across waste characterization, storage, transportation, and disposal, was investigated. By examining case studies from the global nuclear industry, the study highlighted how these technologies enhance remote inspections, maintenance, and design processes. Virtual reality enables virtual inspections of storage and disposal sites, resulting in improved safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Augmented reality supports maintenance operations by delivering real-time digital instructions and diagrams, improving precision and operational safety. Additionally, VR proves valuable in the design and planning phases, offering tools for visualizing facility layouts, optimizing processes, and engaging stakeholders. These simulations not only enhance safety and regulatory compliance but also support informed decision-making through the modeling of various operational scenarios. Overall, the integration of AR and VR technologies represents a significant advancement in the RadWM industry, with the potential to improve both technical and strategic aspects of waste management.

Beyond the nuclear sector, VR has been widely adopted in other industries for emergency preparedness and workforce training. In the chemical industry, it has been employed as a 3D virtual training system for chemical accident emergency response [20]. Similarly, in the energy sector, VR-based 3D training has been used for emergency drills in power grid operations. The oil and gas industry has also integrated VR into its training programs to address skill gaps, improve induction and onboarding processes, and enhance safety measures. These programs focus on mitigating risks associated with chemical hazards, confined spaces, falls from heights, welding operations, machinery-related dangers, and fire and explosion hazards. Given the high fatality rate in the industry—489 worker deaths recorded between 2013 and 2017—VR-based training has contributed to a significant reduction in workplace incidents and an estimated cost savings of $50 billion per year [21].

The effectiveness of VR-based training programs has been widely studied across multiple industries. For example, a survey conducted by YouGov assessed the impact of VR training on workplace safety by gathering responses from over 2,000 frontline workers across Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The results indicated that 64% of respondents believed better training could prevent potential injuries [22].

Kwegyir-Afful [23] conducted a five-year experimental study (2017–2022) to evaluate the use of VR in accident prevention during manufacturing processes and maintenance activities at two industrial sites: a lithium-ion battery manufacturing plant and a gas power facility. The findings demonstrated that VR enhances safety training, hazard identification, risk assessment, and emergency response preparedness, which are key elements in industrial accident prevention.

Similarly, Toyoda et al. [24] reviewed existing research on VR-based health and safety training across various high-risk engineering industries, including petrochemical, construction, and nuclear sectors. The study found that most VR-based training initiatives focused on risk assessment, machinery operation, and process safety. The results highlighted that VR-based training programs significantly improved participants’ reactions, learning retention, and behavior compared to traditional training methods.

Sharma [25] investigated the feasibility of using a collaborative VR environment that integrates user-controlled agents (immersive environments) with computer-controlled agents (non-immersive environments) for building evacuation training. The study concluded that such systems improve emergency response training by enhancing the understanding of human behavior under extreme conditions, facilitating efficient evacuation procedures through simulated drills, and reducing response times to mitigate casualties.

Kwegyir-Afful et al. [8] developed a 3D gas power plant simulation in an IVR environment for fire emergency preparedness and response (EPR). A VR accident causation model was utilized to assess safety preparedness, evacuation drills, and hazard mitigation training. The study focused on four key aspects: (i) safety situational awareness, which evaluates the ability to identify potential fire hazards in advance; (ii) effectiveness of IVR simulations in improving emergency response capabilities; (iii) safe and ergonomic viability of an IVR environment for fire EPR training; and (iv) prior engineering work experience differences among participants. The statistical analysis (Table 1; data from Kwegyir-Afful et al. [8]) revealed that engineering work experience had no significant impact on training outcomes(p > 0.05). Additionally, more than 85% of participants expressed a high level of satisfaction with the IVR training, indicating its effectiveness in simulating hazardous fire scenarios (Figure 1; data from Kwegyir-Afful et al. [8]).

	Group 1: without engineering work experience (n = 21)	Group 2: with engineering work experience (n = 33)	Difference evaluation between the two groups
	Mean (from 1 for poor to 5 for excellent)	Mean (from 1 for poor to 5 for excellent)	t test	p	p difference between the two groups
Situational awareness (SA)	4.267	4.200	0.489	0.627	>0.05	Insignificant
Emergency preparedness and response (EPR)	4.324	4.273	0.404	0.688	>0.05	Insignificant
Safe and ergonomic (SE)	4.190	4.248	−0.521	0.605	>0.05	Insignificant
Mean overall perception	4.26	4.240	0.199	0.843	>0.05	Insignificant

Table 1

Statistical analysis of participant feedback on their IVR experience (data from [8]).

Figure 1.
Participant feedback on their IVR experience (data from [8]).

A recent study by Alshowair et al. [26] evaluated the scientific literature on VR-based disaster preparedness training over a 15-year period (2008–2022). The findings (Table 2; data from Alshowair et al. [26]) indicated that VR training is more effective than traditional methods in enhancing disaster response capabilities and is cost-efficient in the long run. However, the study also highlighted certain limitations, such as technological dependency and initial implementation costs.

Advantages		Disadvantages
Subject area	References	Subject area	References
(1) Fulfilling the needs of users	Hsu et al. [27]; Andreatta et al. [28]	(1) Lack of familiarity with VR exercises	Hsu et al. [27]; Zhu and Li [29]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Iatsyshyn et al. [31]
(2) Replacing hazardous and threatening situations	Velev and Zlateva [32]; Zhu and Li [29]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]	(2) Advanced technology	Hsu et al. [27]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Andreatta et al. [28]; Farra et al. [33]
(3) Testing response plan’s effectiveness	Hsu et al. [27]; Andreatta et al. [28]; Bourhim [34]	(3) VR requires advanced graphics capabilities	Velev and Zlateva [32]
(4) Highly immersive properties	Velev and Zlateva [32]; Zhu and Li [29]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Kwegyir-Afful et al. [23]	(4) High initial development costs because of expensive equipment and programs	Descatha et al. [35]; Hsu et al. [27]; Farra et al. [33, 36]
(5) Different training scenarios in the same disaster scene	Li et al. [37]; Zhu and Li [29]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Sakurai and Murayama [38]	(5) Worsening of overall net training outcomes if used alone in some emergency scenarios	Engelbrecht et al. [30]
(6) Can be repeated and replicated with different working groups	Velev and Zlateva [32]; Li et al. [37]; Zhu and Li [29]; Iatsyshyn et al. [31]	(6) VR may not be suitable for trainees from different groups	Velev and Zlateva [32]
(7) Repeated at the trainee’s own pace	Zhu and Li [29]; Moslehi et al. [39]	(7) Risk of habituation may reduce training effectiveness	Taylor-Nelms and Hill [40]
(8) Recording of trainees’ data during training for assessment and feedback	Hsu et al. [27]; Zhu and Li [29]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]	(8) VR resembles gaming platforms, which may not be taken seriously as real learning	Velev and Zlateva [32]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]
(9) Enhancing motivation to learn and improve the level of trainee skills	Iatsyshyn et al. [31]	(9) Lacks face-to-face interactions during exercises	Velev and Zlateva [32]
(10) VR simulation exercises are found to be cost-effective	Velev and Zlateva [32]; Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Andreatta et al. [28]; Iatsyshyn et al. [31]	(10) Lack of multi-user fidelity	Engelbrecht et al. [30]; Iatsyshyn et al. [31]
		(11) Virtually induced motion sickness and dizziness during VR training sessions	Shujuan et al. [41]; Zhu and Li [29]

Table 2

Advantages and disadvantages of using VR in disaster preparedness training (data from [26]).

This review paper aims to explore the nuclear industry’s current use of VR and AR technologies for training, simulation, public engagement, and education. It identifies the benefits and challenges of these technologies, outlines hypothetical scenarios for their potential applications in RadWM, and provides recommendations for future advancements to enhance safety, efficiency, and risk mitigation in RadWM.

Methodology and data analysis

2.1.

Identification of sources

A comprehensive multi-stage literature search was conducted to identify relevant sources related to the use of VR and AR in training, safety, and emergency preparedness. Databases such as Google Scholar were used to locate peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, and technical reports. The search terms were as follows: (a) VR in training and safety; (b) AR applications in hazardous environments; (c) immersive learning for emergency preparedness; and (d) comparative analysis of VR and traditional training. Additional literature was identified through backward citation tracking, and supplementary gray literature (e.g., IAEA, OSHA, and technology vendors’ white papers) was included to fill in contextual gaps and capture the latest advancements.

2.2.

Screening and eligibility criteria

To ensure consistency and quality, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied:

Inclusion criteria: (a) peer-reviewed articles or technical reports from 2008–2023; (b) English language publications; and (c) studies on VR/AR use in training, safety, or emergency preparedness within high-risk industries (nuclear, petrochemical, manufacturing).
Exclusion criteria: (a) non-English publications without reliable translations; (b) studies lacking empirical evidence or validation; and (c) articles focused on entertainment or gaming applications. An initial pool of 130 records was screened. After removing duplicates and irrelevant titles/abstracts, 86 articles were retained for full-text review and synthesis.

2.3.

Data charting and analysis

Using a grounded theory approach, qualitative and quantitative findings were extracted and coded to identify recurring themes. Abstracts and full texts were evaluated to extract key insights related to the following: (a) industry-specific applications; (b) functional categories (e.g., simulation, safety, training); and (c) methodological trends and technological implementation. Findings were grouped by thematic categories and analyzed for convergence, divergence, and emerging trends.

2.4.

Synthesis of results

The data were synthesized to perform a comparative evaluation of VR/AR-based training versus traditional methods across various domains. Key benefits, limitations, and practical implications were documented. The PRISMA-ScR inspired flow diagram in Figure 2 summarizes the study selection process, and the distribution of the 94 subject areas (included in the 86 studies) is visualized in Figure 3.

Figure 2.
PRISMA-ScR inspired flow diagram for literature search.

Figure 3.
Categorization of the reviewed publications into different subject areas.

As shown in Figure 3, most publications (29) focus on “VR and AR in Training and Simulation,” highlighting a strong research interest in immersive technologies for skill development and scenario-based learning. “Emergency Response and Disaster Preparedness” as well as “Nuclear Industry/RadWM Applications” each account for 16 publications, reflecting the growing attention to VR/AR’s role in high-risk and safety-critical environments.

“Education and Public Engagement” and “Other Related Technologies/Concepts” both have moderate representation, with 9 publications each, indicating efforts to explore VR/AR in awareness building and in connection with emerging technological trends. “Industrial Applications and Maintenance” contribute 8 publications, showcasing VR/AR’s utility in operational and technical workflows.

A smaller number of studies are dedicated to “Bibliometric/Review Studies on VR/AR” (4) and “Safety and Human Factors in a broader context” (3), suggesting these are emerging or less explored areas within the dataset. Overall, the data reveals a predominant emphasis on immersive training, preparedness, and nuclear industry use cases alongside growing interest in educational, operational, and evaluative perspectives.

Applications of AR and VR in RadWM

Figure 4 illustrates the key applications of AR and VR in RadWM, categorized into two main areas: enhanced training and simulation and public engagement and education. Under training and simulation, AR and VR are used to create immersive training environments, conduct safety drills, and provide augmented training aids, all aimed at improving preparedness and operational efficiency. For public engagement and education, these technologies support the development of educational simulations and interactive displays, enhancing public understanding and transparency in RadWM practices. Furthermore, for each application, examples from various RadWM companies from different parts of the world are provided.

Figure 4.
Areas of AR and VR applications in RadWM.

3.1.

Enhanced training and simulation

Augmented reality and virtual reality provide advanced training solutions that enable personnel to experience realistic scenarios without direct exposure to radiation hazards. These immersive technologies enhance training simulations, improve safety drills, and augment traditional training aids, making them particularly valuable in RadWM [5, 6, 12, 42, 43].

3.1.1.

Immersive training environments

Virtual reality creates realistic simulations of radiation waste handling, storage, and disposal procedures, allowing personnel to practice critical tasks in a safe virtual environment. These immersive training environments offer interactive and risk-free learning experiences, significantly enhancing safety and preparedness in RadWM operations [5, 42, 44–47].

Several organizations worldwide have successfully implemented VR-based training programs for RadWM (Appendix A). For instance, Sellafield Ltd (UK) employs VR simulations to replicate processes such as waste retrieval, packaging, and transportation along with emergency response scenarios including spills, contamination events, and equipment failures [48]. These simulations reduce the need for on-site training in hazardous environments, improve safety, and enhance preparedness through customizable, repeatable training modules. The flexibility of the VR environment allows for efficient skill development tailored to specific needs.

Idaho National Laboratory (INL, USA) focuses on using VR to simulate the radiation waste treatment process, including the handling of liquid waste, its solidification, and packaging [49]. The INL also provides VR-based equipment maintenance training, offering technicians hands-on experience without physical risk. These applications not only build technical proficiency and confidence but also reduce exposure to hazardous materials and cut training costs by eliminating the need for physical mock-ups and practice runs.

Électricité de France (EDF) utilizes VR technology to support decommissioning operations. Simulations help trainees practice safe handling and disposal of radioactive materials while detailed virtual recreations of EDF’s nuclear plants allow for safe navigation and interaction with complex systems [45, 50]. This approach enhances the understanding of intricate procedures, ensures safer training by removing radiation exposure, and supports better adherence to safety protocols and standards.

Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (KHNP) in South Korea applies VR for waste segregation, packaging, and storage simulations along with hazard identification and response training [51, 52]. These scenarios prepare trainees to recognize and respond to potential hazards in a controlled, risk-free virtual setting. The VR training at KHNP significantly reduces costs by eliminating the need for physical radioactive materials and improves readiness and hazard awareness among staff.

In summary, although each organization tailors its VR training programs to specific operational objectives—ranging from decommissioning and waste treatment to hazard response—they all benefit from enhanced safety, improved staff competence, and reduced training costs (Table 3). Virtual reality emerges as a powerful tool in modern RadWM, offering scalable and effective training solutions across the nuclear sector.

Organization	Focus area	Key benefits
Sellafield Ltd	Emergency response, waste handling	Safer, repeatable, and flexible training modules
INL	Waste treatment and maintenance	Higher proficiency, reduced hazard exposure, cost savings
EDF	Decommissioning and plant navigation	Better comprehension, procedural adherence, safer conditions
KHNP	Waste management and hazard training	Cost-effective, improves hazard readiness

Table 3

Comparison summary of the use of VR at four organizations.

3.1.2.

Safety drills

The VR simulations serve as an effective tool for conducting emergency response drills, enabling personnel to prepare for potential accidents or incidents in a controlled, risk-free environment [26, 53]. Through realistic and interactive scenarios, VR-based drills enhance response efficiency, improve decision-making under pressure, and reinforce safety protocols.

A study by Kman et al. [54] demonstrated the effectiveness of VR in emergency training by developing a first responder VR simulator. This system was designed to train frontline responders in treating and triaging victims of mass casualty incidents based on the Sort, Assess, Lifesaving Interventions, and Treatment/Transport (SALT) triage framework established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, USA). The application of VR in emergency response drills has also been widely adopted within the nuclear industry to prepare personnel for incidents involving radioactive materials.

A comparative overview of how VR technology is utilized for emergency response drills in RadWM across four major facilities is shown in Appendix B. These VR applications focus on preparing personnel for high-risk scenarios such as radioactive leaks, equipment failures, natural disasters, and fire incidents, all within safe and controlled virtual environments.

At the Hanford Site (USA), VR is used to simulate emergency scenarios involving radioactive leaks, spills, and equipment failures [55]. It also includes interactive drills for practicing emergency protocols, protective gear use, and evacuation procedures. These simulations allow risk-free training, improve preparedness through repeated practice, and enhance coordination among response teams.

Sellafield Ltd (UK) emphasizes VR training for chemical spills, radiation leaks, and fire incidents [48]. Its VR program also includes realistic recreations of site conditions to enable trainees to navigate and execute emergency protocols effectively. This results in comprehensive preparedness, risk-free training, and the benefit of immediate feedback to improve performance.

At TEPCO’s Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (Japan), VR simulations cover responses to earthquakes, tsunamis, and radioactive leaks [53, 56]. Realistic environments are also used to practice evacuation routes and emergency procedures tailored to the plant’s layout. The approach focuses on learning from past incidents, enhancing future preparedness, and testing personnel’s stress and decision-making skills in high-pressure situations.

Kernkraftwerk Gösgen-Däniken AG (KKG, Switzerland) uses VR to simulate containment breaches, radiation leaks, and fire emergencies [57, 58]. It also supports joint training exercises involving cross-department collaboration. This strategy improves coordination and communication, provides real-time trainee performance data, and offers a safe environment for practicing responses to dangerous scenarios.

In summary, all four facilities employ VR to enhance emergency preparedness in RadWM. Although the focus areas vary—ranging from chemical and radiation emergencies to natural disasters and team coordination—they all leverage the safety, realism, and efficiency that VR offers (Table 4). The VR simulations not only reduce exposure risks but also improve response accuracy, decision-making, and interdepartmental collaboration.

Facility and location	VR applications	Focus areas	Key benefits
Hanford site (USA)	VR emergency scenario simulation and interactive drills	Radioactive leaks, spills, equipment failures, emergency protocols, protective gear, evacuation	• Risk-free practice • Enhanced preparedness through repeated drills • Improved coordination among teams
Sellafield Ltd (UK)	Emergency simulations and realistic VR environments	Chemical spills, radiation leaks, fire incidents, site navigation	• Enables high-risk training without exposure • Comprehensive preparedness • Immediate feedback on performance
Fukushima Daiichi (TEPCO, Japan)	Earthquake and tsunami response, radioactive leak containment, realistic VR evacuation drills	Natural disasters (earthquakes, tsunamis), radioactive leaks, evacuation routes	• Risk-free training • Lessons from past incidents • Stress and decision-making testing
KKG (Gösgen-Däniken AG, Switzerland)	Containment breach and fire response, cross-department joint drills	Containment breaches, radiation leaks, fire incidents, cross-functional collaboration	• Enhanced communication and coordination • Real-time trainee performance data • Safe simulation of dangerous events

Table 4

Comparison summary of the use of VR for emergency response drills in RadWM across four major facilities.

3.1.3.

Augmented training aids

Augmented reality enhances training programs by overlaying digital information onto real-world equipment and environments, providing step-by-step guidance and improving learning outcomes [59–62]. Through AR-enabled devices such as smart glasses and mobile applications, trainees can receive real-time visual instructions, reducing the need for extensive physical manuals and improving procedural accuracy. For example, a study by Chen et al. [63] demonstrated the effectiveness of AR in industrial training by integrating a cloud-based database with AR technology. This system collected equipment maintenance and inspection data, allowing users to perform these tasks efficiently via mobile devices. The combination of real-time digital overlays and cloud-based data storage significantly improved training effectiveness and operational efficiency.

The use of AR as an augmented training aid has been widely adopted in the nuclear industry for RadWM (Appendix C). At the Savannah River Site (South Carolina, USA), AR is utilized to enhance training programs for personnel handling radioactive waste, improving procedural accuracy and safety measures [64, 65]. The AR training utilizes visual representations (3D animations and interactive elements) to illustrate each step of the procedure. This hands-on, real-time training approach ensures that trainees receive immediate visual cues, significantly reducing the likelihood of errors. The combination of visual and hands-on training also leads to enhanced retention and understanding of safety protocols, ensuring consistent adherence to these protocols.

Similarly, EDF Energy (UK) has integrated AR into its training programs for RadWM, enabling workers to receive interactive, real-time guidance during both routine and emergency maintenance tasks [50, 66]. Real-time data overlays provide crucial information like radiation levels and equipment status directly within the user’s field of view. This clear guidance leads to higher accuracy in maintenance procedures. Furthermore, quick access to necessary information through AR reduces maintenance time and minimizes equipment downtime. By providing real-time data and clear instructions, AR empowers workers to be better informed about their surroundings and potential hazards, leading to safer operations.

In Canada, Ontario Power Generation (OPG) has adopted AR to improve training and operational efficiency at its RadWM facilities [67]. The AR-guided instructions for waste handling and processing enhance safety through real-time safety alerts integrated with operational data. Procedures are dynamically adjusted based on current operational conditions, providing instant modifications to instructions. This precision in visual guidance ensures high accuracy in task completion. The AR-guided procedures also contribute to reduced training time, allowing new employees to become proficient more quickly. Moreover, the platform facilitates continuous feedback and improvement by incorporating real-time data into procedural enhancements.

Meanwhile, in Switzerland, Kernkraftwerk Leibstadt (KKL) employs AR workflows to assist personnel in the safe and efficient handling of radiation waste, ensuring compliance with safety standards and improving procedural consistency [58, 68]. The AR workflows provide detailed step-by-step procedural instructions overlaid directly onto the worker’s field of view. Safety protocols are also visually overlaid, reinforcing adherence. Interactive AR workflows, including graphical representations for complex procedures and critical alerts for potential hazards, contribute to efficient task performance with on-the-spot guidance and real-time data. This approach leads to improved training outcomes for personnel and increased adherence to safety protocols, ultimately reducing the risk of accidents.

A summary comparison of the four case studies is presented in Table 5, highlighting task focus, step-by-step guidance, safety emphasis, key AR features, and AR use real-world impact for both training and operations.

Feature	Savannah river site	EDF energy	Ontario power generation	Kernkraftwerk Leibstadt
Task focus	Radiation waste sorting and handling	Nuclear maintenance (routine and emergency)	Waste handling and processing	Waste handling and storage
Step-by-step guidance	Detailed instructions via animations and interactive elements	Detailed instructions, real-time data overlays	Detailed instructions, dynamic updates	Detailed instructions, visual overlays
Safety emphasis	Strong (radiation waste handling)	Strong (radiation levels, hazards)	Strong (safety alerts integrated)	Strong (safety protocol overlays, critical alerts)
Key AR features	3D animations, interactive elements	Real-time data overlays, step-by-step instructions	Safety alerts, real-time updates	Procedural instructions, safety protocols, AR workflows
Real-world impact (training)	Reduced errors, enhanced retention	Higher accuracy, reduced training time	Reduced training time, faster proficiency	Efficient task performance, improved learning
Real-world impact (operations)	Consistent safety protocols	Reduced downtime, safer operations	Greater precision, continuous improvement	Increased safety adherence, reduced accidents

Table 5

Comparison summary of AR training aids at various nuclear facilities.

3.2.

Public engagement and education

Augmented reality and virtual reality can enhance public engagement and education efforts by providing immersive experiences that explain RadWM processes. Figure 5 presents two key strategies for enhancing public engagement and education: educational simulations and interactive displays. Educational simulations include virtual tours and educational programs designed to inform and involve the public as well as community engagement and stakeholder outreach initiatives that foster dialogue and participation. Interactive displays encompass exhibits at science centers, virtual tours of waste management facilities, and educational campaigns conducted through community outreach. Together, these methods aim to create immersive, accessible, and informative experiences that promote public awareness and involvement in key topics.

3.2.1.

Educational simulations

Virtual reality has the potential to revolutionize public education by creating immersive simulations that allow individuals to explore waste management facilities in a highly interactive manner [69–73]. However, there are currently no well-documented case studies or specific examples detailing the use of VR for public education in the context of RadWM facilities. This gap in the literature suggests that although the concept is promising, it may not yet be widely implemented or publicly disclosed. Despite this, VR applications for public education and outreach in various fields, including environmental and industrial sectors, are gaining traction, highlighting the growing interest in this technology for educational purposes.

Although specific examples in RadWM remain limited, hypothetical scenarios and general insights provide an understanding of how VR could be effectively utilized in this domain. Appendix D presents two hypothetical scenarios demonstrating the application of VR in educational simulations to enhance public engagement and stakeholder understanding in RadWM. Scenario 1 focuses on Virtual Tours and Educational Programs, leveraging VR headsets to guide users through high-resolution 3D models of key facility areas, such as storage zones and monitoring stations. These immersive virtual tours incorporate interactive elements—such as pop-ups, videos, and quizzes—designed to explain complex processes in a simplified and engaging manner. The VR guides and real-time Q&A functions further enrich the learning experience by allowing users to interact directly with virtual experts, ask questions, and receive immediate feedback. Educational institutions can integrate these tours into curricula to support student learning while public tours serve to enhance transparency and build trust in RadWM processes. This approach promotes enhanced public understanding, offering an innovative tool for public education that demystifies technical processes and fosters greater awareness of nuclear safety practices.

Scenario 2 highlights Community Engagement and Stakeholder Outreach, showcasing how VR can support meaningful interaction with diverse stakeholders, including residents, community leaders, and environmental advocates. Using VR headsets, participants can explore detailed 3D representations of repository layouts and safety features, allowing them to visualize environmental protection and operational procedures. These sessions foster transparent communication by enabling stakeholders to interact with immersive models, ask questions, and provide feedback. Technical setups for such initiatives involve procuring VR hardware and integrating software that supports exploration and feedback collection. This scenario emphasizes the importance of stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes. Feedback gathered through VR sessions is used to refine project designs, address concerns, and improve transparency. By incorporating stakeholder input into project planning, VR simulations support data-driven decisions and proactive risk management, ultimately ensuring that projects align with public expectations and regulatory requirements. Together, these scenarios illustrate how VR technology can be a powerful tool for educational and participatory purposes in complex environmental and technological projects.

3.2.2.

Interactive displays

Augmented reality offers a powerful tool for creating interactive public displays that can help explain complex concepts in an engaging and accessible manner. There are currently limited case studies directly related to the use of AR for explaining complex concepts in RadWM; however, there are several examples and hypothetical scenarios that demonstrate its potential for educational and outreach purposes. The growing interest in AR for public education suggests that this technology could play a key role in enhancing public understanding of RadWM and other technical fields. Appendix E presents insights and hypothetical scenarios illustrating how AR could be applied in public education.

Scenario 1 (Interactive Exhibits at Science Centers) outlines the use of AR to enhance interactive exhibits within science centers, focusing on educating the public about radiation waste. The VR simulations for interactive displays in this scenario primarily involve AR-enabled devices like tablets and smartphones, allowing visitors to interact with exhibits. Digital overlays provide additional layers of information and animations on physical displays. A key application is illustrating the lifecycle of radiation waste, from generation to disposal, alongside educational content. Interactive AR elements enable users to explore containment technologies and access monitoring information. Furthermore, the system provides environmental protection information related to radiation waste.

The implementation activities for this scenario involve the development of AR content, including 3D models, animations, and interactive features tailored to specific parts of the exhibit. The technical setup includes procuring AR devices and developing the necessary software to display overlays and manage interactions. The exhibit design focuses on creating physical exhibits that serve as a foundation for AR integration, ensuring that the AR elements enhance accessibility and safety. Visitor engagement is facilitated through guided tours that utilize AR devices and self-guided exploration supported by AR technology.

The anticipated real-world impact of this scenario is enhanced public understanding of radiation waste through comprehensive and engaging educational experiences. Visual and interactive learning is expected to improve knowledge retention. The use of engaging and informative exhibits aims to make complex topics more accessible and understandable. In-depth exploration through AR allows for a deeper understanding of complex subjects, increasing awareness and safety knowledge. Ultimately, this approach intends to lead to increased awareness of safety measures and improved public confidence in nuclear safety practices.

Scenario 2 (Virtual Tours of Waste Management Facilities) focuses on using VR and AR for virtual tours of RadWM facilities. The VR simulations for interactive displays include AR devices such as headsets for immersive experiences, with the option of using AR-enabled apps on smartphones for convenience. Virtual tours offer audiovisual guides that explain different areas of the facility and highlight safety protocols, technological innovations, and environmental safeguards. Interactive simulations allow users to engage with emergency response and waste handling procedures to understand operational readiness.

The implementation activities for this scenario involve tour design, creating virtual pathways through the facility with interactive elements providing detailed information. The technical setup includes procuring and setting up AR headsets for participants and developing AR-enabled apps for smartphones. Public engagement is a key aspect, involving marketing and outreach to attract participants and scheduling tours for various community groups and stakeholders.

The expected real-world impact of these virtual tours includes enhanced public understanding through comprehensive education and visual/interactive learning, improving knowledge retention. Improved transparency is anticipated by showcasing safety protocols and technological innovations, fostering public trust in environmental safeguards and the facility’s commitment to safety. Operational readiness is highlighted through simulations, helping the public understand the facility’s preparedness for different scenarios. The interactive learning aspect aims to provide participants with a deeper understanding of the operational aspects of the facility.

Scenario 3 (Educational Campaigns in Community Outreach) describes the use of AR pop-up displays for educational campaigns within the community, focusing on topics related to RadWM. The VR simulations for interactive displays consist of AR pop-up displays that present interactive content on radiation safety, waste disposal methods, and environmental impact assessments. Interactive content allows users to explore various topics and case studies, with customization options to focus on specific areas of interest. User engagement is enhanced through customized learning experiences tailored to individual selections and interactive case studies providing detailed insights into local RadWM practices. Feedback collection is facilitated through AR interfaces, allowing participants to provide feedback and engage in dialogue regarding nuclear waste management practices.

The implementation activities for this scenario include the development of AR content that is educationally comprehensive, focusing on relevant topics, and interactive to allow exploration of case studies. The setup of AR pop-up displays involves organizing public events and community meetings and providing AR-enabled devices. The user interaction design focuses on creating customizable AR interfaces and detailed case study exploration. Feedback mechanism integration involves implementing tools within the AR interfaces to collect participant feedback and analyze data to understand community concerns and improve outreach efforts.

The anticipated real-world impact includes enhanced public education, with AR offering an engaging way for residents to learn about RadWM and customized experiences increasing understanding and retention. Improved community engagement is expected through feedback and dialogue mechanisms that address concerns and promote transparent communication, building trust in RadWM practices. Efficient information dissemination is facilitated by AR pop-up displays reaching a wide audience effectively and providing comprehensive coverage of relevant topics, leading to a well-rounded public understanding.

Benefits and challenges

One of the most important benefits of AR and VR in RadWM is improved safety. These technologies enable the simulation of hazardous scenarios, allowing personnel to train in a controlled, risk-free environment without the need to be physically present in dangerous or radioactive areas [74]. By reducing human exposure to radiation, AR and VR training programs significantly enhance worker safety [75, 76]. In addition, these technologies can be used to simulate emergency situations, providing personnel with the necessary skills and knowledge to respond effectively, without any risk of exposure to actual hazards [77].

Another key advantage of AR and VR is their enhanced efficiency. These technologies streamline the training process, allowing workers to gain practical experience without the need for physical equipment or facilities [74]. For instance, trainees can practice RadWM procedures in IVR simulations, leading to faster and more effective skill acquisition. Moreover, the use of AR can assist in real-time guidance during maintenance and operational procedures, reducing downtime by 50% and enhancing operational efficiency [78, 79].

Cost savings are another significant benefit associated with the use of AR and VR in RadWM. Traditional training methods often require physical resources, travel, and on-site exposure to hazardous environments, all of which incur high costs [74]. By utilizing AR and VR for training and simulation, companies can significantly reduce these expenses (viz., reduction in training time for new technicians by up to 60%) while also minimizing the risk of accidents and equipment damage (viz., overall maintenance cost reduction of 10–40%) [79, 80]. Furthermore, AR and VR can contribute to more efficient use of resources, such as reducing the need for physical materials and optimizing workforce management.

Moreover, the use of AR and VR can lead to increased transparency in RadWM operations. These technologies can be used for public outreach and education, offering the public immersive simulations of RadWM facilities and processes. By providing transparent access to the operations and safety measures involved in RadWM, AR and VR can help foster greater public trust and understanding. Through virtual tours, educational programs, and community engagement initiatives, these technologies allow the public to gain insight into complex and sensitive areas of nuclear waste management, promoting informed decision-making [74, 80].

Although the benefits of AR and VR in RadWM are clear, there are several challenges that must be addressed to ensure the successful integration of these technologies into the industry. One of the primary challenges is technical barriers. Developing high-quality VR and AR experiences requires specialized technical expertise, sophisticated hardware, and substantial financial investment [71, 74, 75]. Furthermore, ensuring that these technologies are accessible to a wide audience, including those with limited access to cutting-edge technology, will be crucial for their widespread adoption. As these technologies continue to evolve, it will be important to ensure that they are adaptable and compatible with existing infrastructure and resources [81].

Another challenge lies in public trust and acceptance. Although AR and VR can provide immersive and interactive experiences, they may face skepticism from the public [74], especially in a sensitive area like RadWM. Building trust in these technologies will require clear communication about their purpose and reliability as well as continuous transparency regarding their application. It is essential that stakeholders engage with the public to address concerns and foster confidence in the technologies’ effectiveness and safety [82–84].

Ethical and privacy concerns also need to be carefully considered when using AR and VR for public education and engagement. These technologies often rely on the collection and processing of personal data, raising questions about privacy, consent, and data security. It will be vital to establish clear guidelines and protocols for the responsible use of data, ensuring that individuals’ privacy rights are respected and that data is used ethically and securely [85, 86].

Despite these challenges, the prospects for AR and VR in RadWM remain promising. As technology continues to advance and become more affordable, coupled with growing expertise in the field, it is likely that these tools will see broader adoption in RadWM operations. The continued evolution of AR and VR technology, alongside ongoing research and development, will likely result in more effective and efficient applications, ultimately driving greater safety, transparency, and public engagement in RadWM [71, 87].

Conclusion and future directions

The future of VR and AR in enhancing public engagement and education in RadWM holds significant promise. These technologies offer innovative ways to explain complex processes, engage the public in decision-making, and provide immersive educational experiences. As VR and AR technologies continue to evolve, they have the potential to transform how we communicate about RadWM, enhance public trust, and ensure informed participation in this critical field. However, addressing the challenges and ethical considerations associated with these technologies will be key to realizing their full potential.

5.1.

Enhancing training and simulation programs

One of the most significant applications of VR in RadWM is the creation of immersive training programs. These virtual environments allow workers to engage in realistic simulations of hazardous scenarios without exposure to actual radioactive materials. Future developments in VR training may include several enhancements: (i) advanced scenario simulation, where AI-driven dynamic scenarios adapt to the trainee’s actions, providing more personalized and responsive training experiences; (ii) multi-user collaborative training, enabling multiple trainees to collaborate in real time to practice coordination during emergencies like containment breaches or radioactive leaks; and (iii) haptic feedback integration, which introduces physical sensations to simulate handling tools and equipment, improving the realism of training experiences.

Augmented reality offers a complementary approach by overlaying digital information onto the physical world, making it particularly useful for on-the-job training. This technology can provide real-time guidance while workers perform tasks. Future advancements may include the following: (i) contextual instruction, where AR systems offer context-aware instructions that change based on the specific environment or equipment being used; (ii) real-time performance monitoring, integrating wearable sensors to track trainee performance and provide instant feedback; and (iii) remote expert assistance, where AR platforms allow remote experts to guide workers through complex tasks using live annotations and visual cues overlaid on the worker’s field of view.

5.2.

Enhanced public engagement through immersive experiences

Future VR technology will allow the public to take virtual tours of radiation waste storage facilities. These immersive experiences will offer users a detailed exploration of the sites, enabling them to understand how waste is stored and the safety measures in place. By offering transparency, these VR experiences can help demystify the process and build trust. The AR technology can be employed in museums, educational centers, and public exhibitions to create interactive displays explaining RadWM processes. Visitors could use AR devices to visualize different stages of waste handling, from generation to disposal, and interact with virtual models of storage facilities. These exhibits would serve as a powerful tool for educating the public on complex waste management procedures.

5.3.

Advanced educational programs

Educational institutions could develop VR-based curricula to immerse students in the processes of RadWM. Such programs could include virtual labs where students simulate waste handling procedures, explore geological formations for waste disposal, and analyze the long-term impacts of different storage methods, giving them a hands-on understanding of the field. Augmented reality will enhance traditional learning by overlaying digital information onto textbooks and lab equipment. For example, students could use AR glasses to visualize radiation fields, interact with 3D models of waste containment systems, and receive real-time feedback on their work. This would help students grasp complex concepts more easily and engage with RadWM in an interactive manner.

5.4.

Public involvement in decision-making

Governments and organizations could use VR to host virtual public consultations on RadWM projects. These consultations would allow citizens to explore proposed sites, view environmental impact assessments, and participate in decision-making processes from the comfort of their homes. Virtual consultations could offer greater accessibility and inclusivity for a wider range of people to contribute to important discussions. Augmented reality could be used to visualize potential outcomes of different RadWM policies. For instance, AR could help users visualize how changes in regulation might affect storage facility designs or waste transportation routes. This would make complex policy discussions more accessible and engaging to the general public, helping to foster informed discussions.

5.5.

Community engagement and transparency

Filmmakers and educators can create VR documentaries that give viewers a firsthand look at RadWM facilities. These immersive experiences can educate the public, offering transparency into the processes of waste management and addressing common fears and misconceptions. These documentaries would enhance public understanding and reassurance. Augmented reality apps could support public information campaigns by allowing users to point their smartphones at specific locations or objects and receive detailed information about RadWM practices in that area. This could include everything from the history of waste management to current safety protocols, offering the public a deeper understanding of the field.

5.6.

Long-term monitoring and education

One of the challenges in RadWM is communicating the long-term impacts of waste disposal. Virtual reality could be used to simulate future scenarios, showing how waste storage sites might evolve over centuries and the measures in place to ensure safety. This would help the public appreciate the long-term nature of RadWM and the importance of current practices in protecting future generations. Augmented reality could integrate with monitoring systems at waste disposal sites, providing the public with real-time data about radiation levels, facility conditions, and other key metrics. This transparency would increase public engagement and trust by offering ongoing access to essential information, ensuring that the public remains informed about the safety of their environment.

By integrating VR and AR into various aspects of RadWM from training to public education and engagement, these technologies promise to transform the way we communicate and involve the public in radioactive waste management. The future of these technologies in RadWM offers opportunities for enhanced safety, transparency, and public participation, ensuring that society can make informed decisions regarding the management of radioactive materials.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the use of artificial intelligence (AI) tools in assisting with language refinement. The final content and responsibility for the manuscript remain solely with the authors.

Appendix A.

Appendix B.

Appendix C.

Appendix D.

Appendix E.

Author’s contribution

Mohamed, Abdel-Mohsen O.: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft; Mohamed, Dina: Writing – review & editing; Fayad, Adham: Writing – review & editing; Al Nahyan, Moza T.: Writing – review & editing.

Funding

This research did not receive external funding from any agencies.

Ethical statement

Not applicable.

Data availability

Source data is not available for this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1.
Markets and Markets. Virtual reality market by offering, device type, application, and geography [Internet]. Markets and Markets Research Private Ltd.; 2019 Jan [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/reality-applications-market458.html?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIu-Cf_6_Q4AIVx7fACh3etwIAEAAYASAAEgK9RvD_BwE.
2.
Markets and Markets. Augmented reality market by offering, device type, application, and geography [Internet]. Markets and Markets Research Private Ltd.; 2017 July [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/augmented-reality-market82758548.html?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI_J60r6_Q4AIVCZ7ACh3BuQ4tEAAYASAAEgLvq_D_BwE.
3.
Abbas JR, Chu MMH, Jeyarajah C, Isba R, Payton A, McGrath B, Virtual reality in simulation-based emergency skills training: a systematic review with a narrative synthesis. Resusc Plus. 2023;16:100484. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2023.100484.
4.
Budakova D, Vasilev V, Stefanov S. Machine learning and virtual reality technology in power engineering. AIP Conf Proc. 2024;2980:040003. doi:10.1063/5.0184757.
5.
Freitas VGG, Carlos de Abreu Mol A, Shirru R. Virtual reality for operational procedures in RadW deposits. Prog Nucl Energy. 2014;71(4):225–231. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2013.11.003.
6.
Gupta P. Virtual reality in the nuclear community [Internet]; 2021 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.ans.org/news/article-3164/virtual-reality-in-the-nuclear-community/.
7.
Kolditz O, Jacques D, Claret F, Bertrand J, Churakov SV, Debayle C, Digitalisation for nuclear waste management: predisposal and disposal. Environ Earth Sci. 2023;82:42. doi:10.1007/s12665-022-10675-4.
8.
Kwegyir-Afful E, Hassan TO, Kantola JI. Simulation-based assessments of fire emergency preparedness and response in virtual reality. Int J Occup Saf Ergon. 2021;28(2):1316–1330. doi:10.1080/10803548.2021.1891395.
9.
Mól ACA, Jorge CAF, Couto PM, Augusto SC, Cunha GG, Landau L. Virtual environments simulation for dose assessment in nuclear plants. Progr Nucl Energy. 2009;51(2):382–387. ISSN 0149-1970. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2008.04.003.
10.
Mól ACA, Pereira CMN, Freitas VGG, Jorge CAF. Radiation dose rate map interpolation in nuclear plants using neural networks and virtual reality techniques. Ann Nucl Energy. 2011;38(2–3):705–712. doi:10.1016/j.anucene.2010.08.008.
11.
Patel V, Chesmore A, Legner CM, Pandey S. Trends in workplace wearable technologies and connected-worker solutions for next-generation occupational safety, health, and productivity. Adv Intell Syst. 2022;4(1):2100099. doi:10.1002/aisy.202100099.
12.
Popov OO, Iatsyshyn AV, Iatsyshyn AV, Kovach VO, Artemchuk VO, Gurieiev VO, Immersive technology for training and professional development of nuclear power plants personnel. In: CEUR Workshop Proceedings. vol. 2898, 2021. p. 230–254.
13.
IAEA. Application of simulation techniques for accident management training in nuclear power plants. Vienna: IAEA; 2003. IAEA-TECDOC-1352, ISBN 92–0–103903–4, ISSN 1011–4289.
14.
Mohamed AMO. Enhancing radioactive waste management with cutting-edge digital technologies. Acad Eng. 2024;1(4):1–24. doi:10.20935/AcadEng7385.
15.
Mohamed AMO, Mohamed D, Fayad A, Al Nahyan MT. Enhancing decision making and decarbonation in environmental management: a review on the role of digital technologies. Sustainability. 2024;16:7156. doi:10.3390/su16167156.
16.
Mohamed AMO, Mohamed D, Fayad A, Al Nahyan MT. Environmental management and decarbonization nexus: a pathway to energy sector’s sustainable futures. World. 2025;6(13):1–39. doi:10.3390/world6010013.
17.
Satu P, Jari L, Hanna K, Tomi P, Marja L, Tuisku-Tuuli S. Virtual reality based nuclear power plant field operator training. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health; VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland; Helsinki, Finland; 2021. ISBN 978-952-261-975-4.
18.
Ming G, Zijian X, Mohan W, Biao L. Research on practical training teaching reform of nuclear accident emergency response course based on immersive VR technology. Int J Inf Educ Technol. 2022;12(3):257–262. doi:10.18178/ijiet.2022.12.3.1613.
19.
Mohamed AMO, Al Nahyan MT. Enhancing radioactive waste management: the role of augmented and virtual reality in remote inspections, maintenance, design, and planning. Next Res J. 2025; Ms. No. NEXRES-D-24-00779; Revised submission dated March 31st., 2025.
20.
Huang S-J. Based on unity3D chemical accident emergency rescue 3d virtual simulation training system exploration. J Jiamusi Vocation Coll. 2018;6: 272–273.
21.
Luminousxr [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.luminousxr.com/blog/vr-safety-training-oil-and-gas/.
22.
IOSH [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.ioshmagazine.com/2023/11/02/better-training-critical-reduce-workplace-injuries-survey-finds.
23.
Kwegyir-Afful E. Simulation-based countermeasures towards accident prevention: virtual reality utilization in industrial processes and activities [Internet]. Acta Wasaensia 492. [doctoral dissertation]. Vaasan yliopisto, University of Vaasa. 2022. Available from: https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-395-035-1.
24.
Toyoda R, Russo-Abegão F, Glassey J. VR-based health and safety training in various high-risk engineering industries: a literature review. Int J Educ Technol High Educ. 2022;19:42. doi:10.1186/s41239-022-00349-3.
25.
Sharma S. Improving emergency response training and decision making using a collaborative virtual reality environment for building evacuation. In: Stephanidis C, Chen JYC, Fragomeni G, editors. HCI International 2020—late breaking papers: virtual and augmented reality. HCII 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 12428, Cham: Springer; 2020. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59990-4_17.
26.
Alshowair A, Bail J, Al Suwailem F, Mostafa A, Abdel-Azeem A. Use of virtual reality exercises in disaster preparedness training: a scoping review. SAGE Open Med. 2024;12: 1–11. doi:10.1177/20503121241241936.
27.
Hsu EB, Li Y, Bayram JD, Levinson D, Yang S, Monahan C. State of virtual reality-based disaster preparedness and response training. PLoS Curr Disasters. 2013;5.
28.
Andreatta PB, Maslowski E, Petty S, Shim W, Marsh M, Hall T, Virtual reality triage training provides a viable solution for disaster-preparedness. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17(8):870–876. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.2010.00728.x.
29.
Zhu Y, Li N. Virtual and augmented reality technologies for emergency management in the built environments: a state of-the-art review. J Saf Sci Resil. 2021;2(1):1–10. doi:10.1016/j.jnlssr.2020.11.004.
30.
Engelbrecht H, Lindeman RW, Hoermann S. A SWOT analysis of the field of virtual reality for firefighter training. Front Robot AI. 2019;6:101. doi:10.3389/frobt.2019.00101.
31.
Iatsyshyn AV, Kovach VO, Lyubchak VO, Zuban YO, Piven AG, Sokolyuk OM, Application of augmented reality technologies for education projects preparation [Internet]. CTE Workshop Proc. 2025;7: 134–160. doi:10.55056/cte.318.
32.
Velev D, Zlateva P. Virtual reality challenges in education and training. Int J Learn Teach. 2017;3(1):33–37. doi:10.18178/ijlt.3.1.33-37.
33.
Farra S, Miller ET, Hodgson E. Virtual reality disaster training: translation to practice. Nurse Educ Pract. 2015;15: 53–57. doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2013.08.017.
34.
Bourhim EM. Augmented reality for fire evacuation research: an A’WOT analysis. In: Intelligent Systems Design and Applications: 21st International Conference on Intelligent Systems Design and Applications (ISDA 2021). vol. 2022, Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022. p. 277–285. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96308-8_25.
35.
Descatha A, Loeb T, Dolveck F, Goddet NS, Poirier V, Baer M. Use of tabletop exercise in industrial training disaster. J Occup Environ Med. 2009;51(9):990–991. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181b3265f.
36.
Farra SL, Gneuhs M, Hodgson E, Kawosa B, Miller ET, Simon A, Comparative cost of virtual reality training and live exercises for training hospital workers for evacuation. Comput Inform Nurs. 2019;37(9):446–454. doi:10.1097/CIN.0000000000000540.
37.
Li N, Sun N, Cao C, Hou S, Gong Y. Review on visualization technology in simulation training system for major natural disasters. Nat Hazards. 2022;112(3):1851–1882. doi:10.1007/s11069-022-05277-z.
38.
Sakurai M, Murayama Y. Information technologies and disaster management - Benefits and issues -. Prog. Disaster Sci. 2019;2:100012. doi:10.1016/j.pdisas.2019.100012.
39.
Moslehi S, Masoumi G, Barghi-Shirazi F. Benefits of simulation-based education in hospital emergency departments: a systematic review. J Educ Health Promot. 2022;11:40. doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_558_21.
40.
Taylor-Nelms L, Hill V. Assessing 3D virtual world disaster training through adult learning theory. Int J Serious Games. 2014;1(4):3–16. doi:10.17083/ijsg.v1i4.40.
41.
Shujuan L, Mawpin T, Meichan C, Weijun X, Jing W, Biru L. The use of virtual reality to improve disaster preparedness among nursing students: a randomized study. J Nurs Educ. 2022;61(2):93–96. doi:10.3928/01484834-20211213-05.
42.
Carvalho PVR, Rodrigues de B, Tahar-Hakim G, Orlando J. Analysis of information exchange activities to actualize and validate situation awareness during shift changeovers in nuclear power plants. Hum Fact Ergon Manuf. 2012;22:130–144. doi:10.1002/hfm.20201.
43.
Goertz L, Hagenhofer T, Fehling CD. Planning the use of augmented and virtual reality for vocational education and training: A practical guide [Internet]. Bonn: Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB); 2021. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360539800.
44.
Alyokhina S. Visualization in nuclear training [Internet]. In: Third International Conference on Human Resource Development for Nuclear Power Programmes: Meeting Challenges to Ensure the Future Nuclear Workforce Capability, Book of Abstracts, Gyeongju, Republic of Korea, paper #76. Vienna, Austria: IAEA; 2018. Available from: https://www.iaea.org/events/human-resource-development-conference-2018.
45.
Dean L. Leading innovative teams; a virtual reality case study [Internet]. In: Third International Conference on Human Resource Development for Nuclear Power Programmes: Meeting Challenges to Ensure the Future Nuclear Workforce Capability, Book of Abstracts, Gyeongju, Republic of Korea, paper #56. Vienna, Austria: IAEA; 2018. Available from: https://www.iaea.org/publications/13551/human-resource-development-for-nuclear-power-programmes?supplementary=64755.
46.
Perrette X. Digital transformation to support the development of nuclear skills [Internet]. In: Third International Conference on Human Resource Development for Nuclear Power Programmes: Meeting Challenges to Ensure the Future Nuclear Workforce Capability, Book of Abstracts, Gyeongju, Republic of Korea, paper #96. Vienna, Austria: IAEA; 2018. Available from: https://www.iaea.org/publications/13551/human- resource-development-for-nuclear-power-programmes?supplementary=64755.
47.
Miko O, Niklas H. New ways of learning at NPP—value drivers and lessons learned from VR simulators, interactive 360 video and other new ways of competence building [Internet]. In: Third International Conference on Human Resource Development for Nuclear Power Programmes: Meeting Challenges to Ensure the Future Nuclear Workforce Capability, Book of Abstracts, Gyeongju, Republic of Korea. Vienna, Austria: IAEA; 2019. Available from: https://www.iaea.org/publications/13551/human-resource-development-for-nuclear-power-programmes?supplementary=64755; http://www.iaea.org/books.
48.
Sellafield Ltd [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/660bce1e91a3207f0582b07c/FN_Sellafield_-_Areas_of_Research_Interest_FINAL.pdf.
49.
US Depart of Energy. Idaho Project Explores Virtual Reality to Improve Safety, Work Performance [Internet]; 2019 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.energy.gov/em/articles/idaho-project-explores-virtual-reality-improve-safety-work-performance.
50.
EDF. Virtual Reality & Augmented Reality [Internet]; 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.edf.fr/en/the-edf-group/inventing-the-future-of-energy/rd-global-expertise/rd-experience/data-science-ai-world/virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality.
51.
Moon J, Kim S, Choi W, Choi B, Chung D, Seo B. The status and prospect of decommissioning technology development at KAERI. J Nucl Fuel Cycle Waste Technol. 2019;17(2):139–165. doi:10.7733/jnfcwt.2019.17.2.139.
52.
Park HS, Jang SC, Kang IS, Lee DJ, Kim JG, Lee JW. A detailed design for a RadW safety management system using ICT technologies. Prog Nucl Energy. 2022;149:104251. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2022.104251.
53.
Foronuclear. Virtual reality in the nuclear industry [Internet]; 2022 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.foronuclear.org/en/updates/in-depth/virtual-reality-in-the-nuclear-industry/.
54.
Kman NE, Price A, Berezina-Blackburn V, Patterson J, Maicher K, Way DP, First responder virtual reality simulator to train and assess emergency personnel for mass casualty response. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2023;4(1):e12903. doi:10.1002/emp2.12903.
55.
Zhou H, Ren H, Royer P, Hou H, Yu X-Y. Big data analytics for long-term meteorological observations at Hanford site. Atmosphere. 2022;13:136. doi:10.3390/atmos13010136.
56.
Clayton DA, Poore WP III. Fukushima Daiichi—a case study for BWR instrumentation and control systems performance during a severe accident [Internet]; 2014 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL/TM-2013/154 Rev 1, 91 p. Available from: https://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/files/Pub50113.pdf.
57.
KKG. Virtual reality training [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.kkg.ch/de/search.html?prov=cmscontent10&context=resultpage&groupbyprov=true&q=Virtual+reality+training.
58.
Radiological Protection. Occupational exposures at nuclear power plants [Internet]; 2021. Available from: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/52/036/52036162.pdf.
59.
Al-Ansi AM, Jaboob M, Garad A, Al-Ansi A. Analyzing augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) recent development in education. Soc Sci Humanit Open. 2023;8(1):100532. doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100532.
60.
Alatawi H, Albalawi N, Shahata G, Aljohani K, Alhakamy A, Tuceryan M. Augmented reality-assisted deep reinforcement learning-based model towards industrial training and maintenance for nanodrop spectrophotometer. Sensors (Basel). 2023;23(13):6024. doi:10.3390/s23136024.
61.
Simon J, Gogolák L, Sárosi J, Fürstner I. Augmented reality based distant maintenance approach. Actuators. 2023;12(7):302. doi:10.3390/act12070302.
62.
Zhao X, Ren Y, Cheah KSL. Leading virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in education: bibliometric and content analysis from the web of science (2018–2022). Sage Open. 2023;13(3):21582440231. doi:10.1177/21582440231190821.
63.
Chen YJ, Lai YS, Lin YH. BIM-based augmented reality inspection and maintenance of fire safety equipment. Autom Constr. 2020;110:103041. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2019.103041.
64.
Aiken SC. Augmented reality and virtual reality transforms SRS pit production operations [Internet]; 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.srs.gov/general/news/releases/2024/nr24_Augmented_reality_and_virtual_reality_transforms_SRS_pit_production_operations.pdf.
65.
SRNS Today [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.savannahrivernuclearsolutions.com/docs/SRNS_Today_May_24_email.pdf.
66.
RS. Augmented reality for maintenance [Internet]; 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://uk.rs-online.com/web/content/discovery/ideas-and-advice/augmented-reality-for-maintenance-guide.
67.
OPG [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.opg.com/news/episode-8-opgs-power-plant-of-ideas/.
68.
KKL. Leibstadt nuclear power plant technical description [Internet]; 2011 [cited 2024 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www.kkl.ch/fileadmin/seiteninhalt/Dateien/01_Unternehmen/E_Publikationen/technische_beschreibung_kkl_en.pdf.
69.
AlGerafi MAM, Zhou Y, Oubibi M, Wijaya TT. Unlocking the potential: a comprehensive evaluation of augmented reality and virtual reality in education. Electronics. 2023;12:3953. doi:10.3390/electronics12183953.
70.
Almufarreh A, Arshad M. Promising emerging technologies for teaching and learning: recent developments and future challenges. Sustainability. 2023;15(8):6917. doi:10.3390/su15086917.
71.
Creed C, Al-Kalbani M, Theil A, Sarcar S, Williams I. Inclusive augmented and virtual reality: a research agenda. Int J Human–Comput Interact. 2023;40(20):6200–6219. doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2247614.
72.
Lee J, Surh J, Choi W, You B. Immersive virtual-reality-based streaming distance education system for solar dynamics observatory: a case study. Appl Sci. 2021;11(19):8932. doi:10.3390/app11198932.
73.
Rawson R, Okere U, Tooth O. Using low-immersive virtual reality in online learning: field notes from environmental management education. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn. 2022;23: 211–221. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v23i4.6475.
74.
Canadian Safety Training Center. How safety training improves with virtual and augmented reality [Internet]; 2025 [cited 2025 Feb 02]. Available from: https://www.canadasafetytraining.com/Safety_Blog/how-safety-training-improves-with-virtual-augmented-reality.aspx.
75.
Baniasadi T, Ayyoubzadeh SM, Mohammadzadeh N. Challenges and practical considerations in applying virtual reality in medical education and treatment. Oman Med J. 2020;35(3):e125. doi:10.5001/omj.2020.43.
76.
Fujiwara A, Fujimoto S, Ishikawa R, Tanaka A. Virtual reality training for radiation safety in cardiac catheterization laboratories—an integrated study. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2024;200(15):1462–1469. doi:10.1093/rpd/ncae187.
77.
Magi CE, Bambi S, Iovino P, El Aoufy K, Amato C, Balestri C, Virtual reality and augmented reality training in disaster medicine courses for students in nursing: a scoping review of adoptable tools. Behav Sci (Basel). 2023;13(7):616. doi:10.3390/bs13070616.
78.
FATFINGER. Augmented Reality (AR) for real-time maintenance guidance [Internet]; 2024 [cited 2025 Feb 01]. Available from: https://fatfinger.io/augmented-reality-ar-for-real-time-maintenance-guidance/#::̃text=AR%20can%20provide%20visual%20instructions,helping%20technicians%20make%20informed%20decisions.
79.
MaintWiz. Augmented reality and AI: enhancing on-site maintenance for improved efficiency [Internet]; 2025 [cited 2025 Feb 01]. Available from: https://www.maintwiz.com/thought-leadership/augmented-reality-ai-onsite-maintenance/.
80.
SmartTek. Using Augmented Reality in Field Services to Slash Costs and Reduce Downtime [Internet]; 2025 [cited 2025 Feb 01]. Available from: https://smarttek.solutions/blog/using-augmented-reality-in-field-services/.
81.
Shankar AU, Tewari V, Rahman M, Mishra A, Bajaj KK. Impact of virtual reality (Vr) and augmented reality (Ar) in education. TuijinJishu/J Propuls Technol. 2023;44(4):1310–1318. doi:10.52783/tjjpt.v44.i4.1014.
82.
Delgado JMD, Oyedele L, Demian P, Beach T. A research agenda for augmented and virtual reality in architecture, engineering and construction. Adv Eng Inform. 2020;45:101122. doi:10.1016/j.aei.2020.101122.
83.
Mutis I, Ambekar A. Challenges and enablers of augmented reality technology for in situ walkthrough applications. J Inf Technol Constr. 2020;25: 55–71. doi:10.36680/j.itcon.2020.003.
84.
Pejic P, Lakicevic M, Krasic S, Predrag S. Application of augmented and virtual reality in residential complex presentation, case study: energoprojekt Sunnyville. J Indus Design Eng Graphics. 2017;12: 127–132. Available from: http://sorging.ro/jideg/index.php/jideg/article/view/160.
85.
Lebeck K, Ruth K, Kohno T, Roesner F. Towards security and privacy for multiuser augmented reality: foundations with end users. In: 2018 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP). Piscataway, NJ: IEEE; 2018. p. 392–408. doi:10.1109/SP.2018.00051.
86.
Roesner F, Kohno T, Molnar D. Security and privacy for augmented reality systems. Commun. ACM. 2014;57: 88–96. doi:10.1145/2580723.2580730.
87.
Pribadi AP, Rahman YMR, Br Silalahi CDA. Analysis of the effectiveness and user experience of employing virtual reality to enhance the efficacy of occupational safety and health learning for electrical workers and graduate students. Heliyon. 2024;10(15):e34918. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34918.

Written by

Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed, Dina Mohamed, Adham Fayad and Moza T. Al Nahyan

Article Type: Review Paper

•

Date of acceptance: June 2025

Date of publication: July 2025

•

DOI: 10.5772/geet.20250023

Copyright: The Author(s), Licensee IntechOpen, License: CC BY 4.0

Download for free

© The Author(s) 2025. Licensee IntechOpen. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Impact of this article

Downloads

Views

Share this article

Join us today!

Submit your Article

Enhancing Radioactive Waste Management: The Role of Augmented and Virtual Reality in Training and Public Engagement

Abstract